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FOREST  RESOURCL 
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U.  S.  DEPARTMEXT   OF  AGRICULTURE, 
BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY-  PULLETIN  No.  33. 

GIFFORD    PINCHOT,  Forester. 


THE  WESTERN  HEMLOCK 


EDWARD   T.   ALLP:N. 

FIELD     ASSISTANT,     BUREAU     OF     FORESTRY. 


NRRC 

WASHINGTON: 

SD397 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE 

W^5 
1902 

19  0-2. 

BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY. 


Forester,  Gifford  Pinchot, 

Assistant  Forester,  Overton  W.  Price. 

Assistant  Forester,  George  B.  Sudworth. 

Chief  Clerk,  Otto  J.  J.  Luebkert. 

Su])enntendent  of  Tree  Planting,  William  L.  Hall, 


olltp  i.  B.  Mill 

ICtfararg 

North  (Uaroltna  ^tatp  llmtipratti|  | 

^0 

1 

1 

NRRC 

SD397 
kkk 

1902 

THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  DATE 
INDICATED  BELOW  AND  IS  SUB- 
JECT TO  AN  OVERDUE  FINE  AS 
POSTED  AT  THE  CIRCULATION 
DESK. 


NATURAL  RESOURCES 

RESEARCH  CENTER 

N.  C.  STATE  UNIVERSITY 


Bui.  33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agr.culture. 


Frontispiece. 


Typical  Fokest  Mixture  in  Washington.    Species,  from  left 
TO  RIGHT:   Red  Fir,  Spruce,  Hemlock,  Cedar,  Red  Fir. 


U.  S.  DEPARTMENT   OF  AGRICULTURE. 

BUREAU  OF  FORESTRY-BULLETIN  No.  33. 

GIFFORD    PINCHOT,  Forester. 


THE  WESTERN  HEMLOCK, 


EDWARD   T.   ALLEN, 

FIELD     ASSISTANT,    BUREAU     OF     FORESTRY. 


WASHINGTON. 

GOVERNMENT    PRINTING    OFFICE. 

19  0  2. 


LlTri'R  OP  TRAXSMITTAL 


U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture, 

Bureau  of  Forestry, 
m/^/mn/ton,  D.    C.  March  8,  1902. 
Sir:  1  have  the  honor  to  transmit  herewith  a  report  entitled  "The 
Western  Hemlock,"  prepared  by  Edward  T.  Allen,  field  assistant  in 
the  Bureau  of  Forestry,  and  to  recommend  its  publication  as  Bulletin 
No.  33  of  this  Bureau. 

Very  respectfully,  Gifford  Pinghot, 

F'ore!<ter. 
Hon.  James  Wilson, 

Seci^etary  of  Aijri culture. 


SUMMARY. 


Western  Hemlock  has  suffered  so  severely  through  the  reputation  of 
its  Eastern  relative  among  lumber  manufacturers  and  consumers  that 
it  has  at  present  scarcely  an}^  market  standing.  To  remove  this  preju- 
dice and  to  introduce  the  Western  Hemlock  to  the  market  by  pointing 
out  its  uses,  its  economic  value,  and  the  conditions  under  which  it 
may  profitably  be  grown,  lumbered,  and  manufactured,  was  one  of  the 
purposes  of  a  two  seasons'  study  on  the  ground,  the  results  of  which 
are  embodied  in  this  report.  The  other  purpose  was  to  ascertain  the 
qualities  and  possibilities  for  forestry  of  a  tree  that  must  inevitabl}^ 
take  on  great  importance  in  conservative  lumbering  in  the  Northwest. 

The  conclusions  to  which  this  study  has  led  may  be  briefly  sum- 
marized as  follows: 

(1)  The  wood  of  the  Western  Hemlock  is  far  superior  to  that  of  the 
Eastern  tree.  It  is  suitable  for  use  in  all  ordinary  building  work;  it 
furnishes  good  paper  pulp;  it  is  sufficiently  light  and  strong  to  make 
excellent  woodenware  stock,  and  it  is  particularly  valuable  for  indoor 
finishing.  Its  bark  is  half  again  as  rich  in  tannin  as  that  of  the  East- 
ern tree. 

(2)  Under  favorable  conditions  the  Western  Hemlock  reproduces 
abundantly  and  grows  very  rapidh^  Since  these  conditions  are  usually 
disadvantageous  to  Red  Fir,  hemlock  ma}^  often  be  counted  upon  to 
reforest  cut-over  lands  when  Red  Fir  would  probably  fail  to  establish 
itself.  • 

(3)  The  Western  Hemlock  has  now  to  contend  mainly  with  a  preju- 
dice which  is  based  upon  a  knowledge  of  the  Eastern  tree  alone.  The 
importance  of  bringing  it  into  the  market  on  a  large  scale  as  a  substi- 
tute for  Spruce  and  White  Pine  is  growing  rapidly.  Its  qualities 
entitle  it  to  rank  among  the  valuable  timber  trees  of  this  continent. 

3 


CONTENTS, 


Page. 

Introduction 9 

Distribution 9 

Associated  species 10 

Undergrowth 11 

Habit 11 

Tolerance H 

Growth  under  cover 12 

Demands  upon  soil  and  moisture 14 

Reproduction 14 

Enemies 15 

Fungi  (conk  and  ground  rot) 15 

Insects 1(> 

Boring  beetles 18 

Black  check 19 

Immunity  from  white  ants  (termites) 20 

Parasites 20 

The  wood T 21 

Durability 22 

Defects 22 

Uses 23 

Manufacturing  problems 24 

Present  market  standing 24 

Accessibility 26 

Lumbering 28 

Volume  and  yield,  first-growth  Hemlock 30 

Logged-off  lands 36 

Volume  and  yield,  second-growth  Hemlock 40 

Utilization  of  second-growth  stands 44 

Hemlock  left  after  lumbering 46 

Bark '. 48 

Volume  and  yield 50 

Harvestmg 52 

Extract 53 

A  list  of  the  trees  of  Oregon  and  Washington 54 

5 


ILLUSTRATIONS, 


PLATES. 

Page. 

Typical  forest  mixture  in  Washington Frontispiece. 

Plate  I.  Figs.  1  and  2.— Pure  stand  of  Western  Hemlock,  Cascade  foothills, 

Washington 10 

II.  Typical  mixture  of  Red  Fir  and  Hemlock,  Black  Hills,  Washington.         10 

III.  Fig.  1. — Semi-Alpine  forest  of  Noble  Fir,   Red    Fir,  and   Western 

Hemlock,  Mount  Rainier  Forest  Reserve.    Fig.  2. — Western  White 
Pine,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington 10 

IV.  Fig.  1. — Young  Hemlock  growing  on  Red   Fir  stump.     Fig.  2. — 

Hemlock,  second  g'rowth,  12  to  14  years  old,  on  logged-off  land, 

near  Hoquiam,  AVash 14 

V.  Fig.  1. — Hemlock  seedlings  growing  on  rotten  wood.    Fig.  2. — Hem- 
lock,   second    growth,    15   years    old,    on   logged-off    land,    near 

Hoquiam,  Wash 14 

VI.  Fig.  1. — "Conky"  living  Hemlock,  showing  fruiting  organs.    Fig. 
2.— Distortion   of  trunk  and    branches  of  Hemlock   caused  by 

Arceuthobium  occidentale 16 

VII.  Fig.  1. — "Black  check"  in  Hemlock  lumber,  caused  by  insect  injury 
when  tree  was  small.     Fig.  2. — Hemlock  near  Hoquiam,  Wash., 

killed  by  Buprestid  larvae 16 

VIII.  Fig.  1. — Fasciation  of  Hemlock  branch,  caused  by  Arceuthobium 
occidentale.  Fig.  2. — Hemlock  stump  cut  high  to  avoid  ground- 
rot - 20 

IX.  Fig.  1. — Second-growth  Red  Fir,  70  years  old;  Dryad,  Wash.     Fig. 
2.— Mature   Red   Fir,  380  years  old;   young    Hemlock   beneath; 

Black  Hills,  Washington 30 

X.  Fig.  1. — Logged-off  land,  Buckley,  Wash.;   Hemlock  and  diseased 
Fir  left  standing.    Fig.  2. — Hemlock  left  after  logging,  Enumclaw, 

Wash.,  showing  stumps  of  Red  Fir 38 

XI.  Pure  second-growth  Hemlock,  55  years  old.  South  Bend,  Wash 40 

XII.  Figs.  1  and  2. — Western  Hemlock,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington, 

showing  thick,  rough  bark  of  mountain  form 52 

TEXT    FIGURES. 

Fig.  1.— Diagram  showing  height  growth  of  mature  Red  Fir  and  of  Hemlock 

growing  beneath  it,  calculated  on  a  basis  of  age 12 

2. — Diagram  showing  diameter  growth  of  mature,  Red  Fir  and  of  Hem- 
lock, calculated  on  a  basis  of  age 13 

3. — Diagram  showing  growth  in  height  of  second-growth  Hemlock  and 

Fir,  on  a  basis  of  diameter  breasthigh 40 

4. — Diagram  showing  growth  in  diameter  of  second-growth  Red  Fir  and 

Hemlock  in  pure  stands  and  of  Hemlock  in  mixture  with  Red  Fir. .        41 

5. — Diagram  showing  yield  per  acre  in  board  feet  on  a  basis  of  age  of  pure 

even-aged  Hemlock  with  and  without  deduction  for  cull 43 

7 


THE  WESTERN  HEMLOCK. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  stimulus  apparent  in  the  lumber  industry  of  the  Northwest 
within  the  last  few  years,  with  the  recent  immense  inyestments  in 
standing-  timber  in  that  region  and  the  realization  that  its  supply  is 
limited,  has  created  an  interest  in  the  long-despised  Western  Hemlock. 
This  species  forms  13  per  cent  of  the  forests  of  Washington  and  is 
abundant  in  many  parts  of  Oregon.  Apparent  inability  to  utilize  it 
is  one  of  the  most  serious  factors  in  the  local  lumber  problem.  Were 
it  practicable  for  the  Hemlock  to  stand  unharmed  until  it  became 
established  in  the  market  there  would  be  less  cause  for  immediate 
concern.  But,  seldom  growing  in  pure  stands,  the  Hemlock  in  mix- 
ture with  the  Red  Fir,  Spruce,  and  Cedar  now  being  logged  is  left 
standing  by  the  lumberman  to  be  destoyed  by  fire,  wind,  or  insects,  a 
complete  loss  to  the  owner  and  to  the  communit^^ 

This  waste  is  in  line  with  the  history  of  lumbering  in  the  North- 
eastern and  Lake  States,  but  with  more  serious  result  and  with  less 
justification.  The  Eastern  Hemlock  is  an  inferior  wood,  and  therefore 
was  left  uncut  until  more  yaluable  species  became  scarce.  The  disad- 
yantage  of  the  Western  Hemlock  has  been  not  its  quality,  but  its 
confusion  with  the  Eastern  species.  It  has  been  condemned  without 
trial  except  by  a  few,  who,  realizing  the  difficulty  of  conyincing  the 
market,  haye  manufactured  under  the  names  of  Fir,  Spruce,  or  Alaska 
Pine  as  much  Hemlock  as  they  dared  without  fear  of  detection. 

The  importance  of  bringing  Hemlock  into  the  market  on  a  large 
scale  is  now  being  realized  and  its  surreptitious  use  is  somewhat  greater 
than  it  was  formerly.  There  is  still,  howeyer,  a  total  lack  of  organ- 
ized effort,  and  practically  nothing  is  done  to  acquaint  the  consumer 
with  its  merits. 

DISTRIBUTION. 

The  Western  Hemlock  extends  from  Alaska  southward  to  Marin 
County,  Cal.,  to  the  coast  region  in  California  and  southern  Oregon  in 
the  southern,  and  east  to  Montana  in  the  northern,  portion  of  the  belt. 
The  first  printed  mention  of  the  species  occurs  in  an  account  of  the 
voj-age  of  Admiral  Vancouyer,  a  British  nayigator,  who  yisited  Puget 
Sound  in  May,  1792.     In  July  of  the  following  3'ear  Alexander  Mac- 


10  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

kenzie.  tlio  tirst  Avhitc  man  to  cross  the  North  American  continent, 
saw  the  Hemlock  in  latitude  52°  on  the  coast  of  what  is  now  British 
Columbia.  The  lirst  description  of  the  tree  was  published  in  1814  in 
the  journal  of  the  Lew'is  and  Clarke  Expedition,  which  passed  the  win- 
ter of  1805  near  the  mouth  of  the  Columbia  River.  These  explorers 
spoke  of  it  as  a  tree  ''four  to  six  feet  in  diameter,  straight,  round, 
and  reofularly  tapering.'' 

The  distrilnition  of  the  species  indicates  clearl}'  its  chief  require- 
ments to  be  a  cool  and  moist  climate.  Western  Washington  and 
Oregon,  where  it  reaches  its  best  development,  are  divided  into  three 
longitudinal  l)elts,  each  with  distinct  characteristics  of  soil  and  climate. 
The  western  strip,  between  the  Pacdtic  Ocean  and  the  Coast  Range  (which 
becomes  the  Olympic  Mountains  in  the  north),  has  a  fertile,  usuaUy 
cla3^ey  soil  and  an  annual  rainfall  of  from  70  to  100  inches.  This  strip 
contains  a  large  proportion  of  Hemlock,  in  mixture  with  Spruce,  Cedar, 
and  Red  Fir.  (See  Frontispiece.)  Between  the  Coast  Range  and  the 
foot  of  the  Cascades  lies  a  belt  which,  protected  from  the  moist  sea 
winds,  is  comparative!}"  dry.  In  Washington  the  soil  is  glacial  drift, 
consisting  chiefly  of  gravels;  in  Oregon  it  forms  the  rich  agricultural 
lands  along  the  AVillamette  and  other  rivers.  In  this  belt  there  is 
little  Hemlock,  the  growth  being  nearly  pure  Red  Fir,  with  Cedar  on 
the  low  ground,  and  some  Pine.  On  ascending  the  west  slopes  of  the 
Cascades  the  change  is  again  distinctly  marked.  The  soil  is  of  either 
volcanic  or  sedimentary  origin,  and  the  increasing  altitude  causes  con- 
densation of  the  moisture  which  escapes  the  Coast  Range  and  is  carried 
eastward  over  the  central  valley.  Here  the  Hemlock  again  appears 
and,  at  an  altitude  of  from  1,500  to  3,500  feet,  reaches  its  best  develop- 
ment, and  is  most  free  from  insect  attacks  and  from  disease. 

ASSOCIATED  SPECIES. 

Hemlock  rarely  occurs  in  pure  stands  of  great  extent,  al^^hough 
Clallam  (bounty,  Wash.,  contains  large  forests  of  Hemlock,  and  there 
are  tracts  in  Jefl'erson  and  King  counties  in  which  the  percentage  of 
other  species  is  small.  (PI.  I.)  It  commonly  occurs  in  a  mixture  in 
which  Red  Fir  is  apt  to  be  the  prevailing  species.  (PL  II.)  Along 
the  coast  it  is  associated  with  Spruce  and  Cedar,  and  in  northern  Cali- 
fornia with  Redwood.  Occurring  up  to  an  altitude  of  near!}'  5,000 
feet,  it  is  almost  alwa3"s  one  of  the  many  species  which  form  the  widely 
varying  mixture  on  the  west  slope  of  the  Cascades.  With  Red  Fir, 
Spruce,  Cedar,  and  White  Fir,  it  constitutes  the  forest  now  being 
lumbered  in  the  foothills;  higher,  its  associates  are  White  Pine  (PL  III, 
fig.  2),  No])le  Fir,  Amabilis  Fir  (PL  III,  tig.  1),  and,  near  its  upper 
limit,  Alaska  Cedar  and  the  Alpine  Hemlock.  Toward  the  west  slope 
of  the  Rockies,  the  eastern  limit  of  its  range,  it  becomes  more  distinctly 
a  mounrain  tree  and  grows  in  what  has  been  called  the  White  Pine 


3ul.  33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricultun 


Fig.  1.    Pure  Stand  of  Western  Hemlock,  Cascade  Foothills,  Washington. 
Altitude,  1,300  Feet. 


Fig   2.— Pure  Stand  of  Western  Hemlock,  Cascade  Foothills. 
Washington.    Altitude,  1,300  Feet. 


j|,  33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Typical  Mixture  of  Red  Fir  and  Hemlock,  Black  Hills, 
Washington. 


Bureau  of  Forest^.  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricultu 


Plate  III. 


FiQ.  1. -Semi-Alpine  Forest  of  Noble  Fir,  Red  Fir,  and  Western  Hemlock,  Mount 
Rainier  Forest  Reserve.    Altitude,  2,400  Feet. 


Fig.  2. -Western  White  Pine,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington. 
Altitude,  2.50D  Feet. 


HABIT.  11 

zone.  Other  trees  in  this  zone  are  Tamarack,  Engehnann  Spruce, 
Lodgepole  Pine,  and  Cedar.  Throughout  the  range  of  the  Western 
Hemlock  broadleaf  trees  are  so  few  that  they  are  of  no  consequence  as 
factors  in  the  mixture.  Where  the  climate  is  too  dry  to  be  generally 
favorable,  Hemlock  takes  refuge  on  north  slopes  and  in  shaded  valle^^s, 
where  it  can  hold  its  own  against  Fir  mainly  because,  since  lire  is 
infrequent,  the  latter  finds  an  unsuitable  seed  bed  and  insufficient  light 
in  such  localities. 

A  list  of  the  trees  of  Oregon  and  Washington  contains  a  few  which 
seldom  or  never  occur  in  mixture  with  Hemlock,  but  it  is  given  for 
reference  on  page  54. 

UNDERGROWTH. 

Since  Hemlock  rarelj^  forms  a  pure  stand  it  has  no  characteristic 
undergrowth  of  its  own.  Vine  Maple  is  common  and  Oregon  Grape, 
ferns,  and  mosses  constitute  the  smaller  growth.  In  low,  wet  situa- 
tions Devil's  Club  and  Salmonberry  are  often  abundant.  No  shrul)  is 
more  characteristic  of  the  pure  fir  forest  than  Salal,  which  prefers  a 
dry  soil  and  is  therefore  not  much  in  evidence  in  the  moist  localities 
where  Hemlock  is  at  its  best.  Where  it  occurs  forest  reproduction  is 
poor,  for  Salal  covers  the  ground  with  a  dense  thicket  2  or  3  feet  high. 
The  leaves  are  thick  and  oily  and  encourage  rather  than  prevent  fire. 
A  list  of  some  of  the  more  important  shrubs  which  occur  in  the  forests 
of  Washington  and  Oregon,  will  be  found  on  page  55. 

HABIT. 

The  Western  Hemlock  has  been  found  with  a  diameter  of  S  and  a 
height  of  250  feet,  and  these  dimensions  ma}^  occasionalh"  be  surpassed. 
As  a  rule  mature  trees  are  from  3  to  5  feet  in  diameter  at  breastheight. 
The  trunk  is  exceedingly  cylindrical,  although  often  with  a  sudden, 
irregular  buttressing  near  the  base,  due  to  the  germination  of  the 
seed  on  a  log  or  stump.  The  branches  are  small  and  pendulous,  form- 
ing a  narrow  spire-shaped  crown  which  offers  little  resistance  to  the 
wind  and  serves  somewhat  to  offset  the  insecurity  of  a  shallow  root 
system.  Near  the  top  of  the  tree  and  where  exposed  to  the  light  the 
foliage  is  exceedingly  dense  and  tufted,  appearing  almost  fascicled,  a 
provision  which  secures  a  very  large  leaf  surface.  Overtopped  trees 
are  able  to  form  spreading  crowns,  and  thus  to  accomplish  the  same 
result.     The  Hemlock  clears  itself  of  branches  somewhat  slowly. 

TOLERANCE. 

Western  Hemlock  will  germinate  and  grow  under  dense  shade. 
This  characteristic,  called  tolerance,  is  one  of  the  most  important 
factors  in  determining  the  composition  of  the  forest.  Red  Fir  requires 
abundant  light  in  youth,  and  hence  seedlings  of  this  species  do  not 


12 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


conio  up  beneath  a  heavy  .stand  of  mature  timl^er.  Hemlock  and 
Cedar  thrive  under  cover  and,  where  climate  and  soil  are  favorable, 
occur  in  stands  containing-  trees  differing-  widely  in  age,  since  3'oung 
trees  are  continually  growing  up  to  replace  those  which  die  and  are 
blown  down.  In  a  forest  of  Red  Fir,  however,  the  trees  are  practi- 
callj'  of  the  same  age  and  no  reproduction  takes  place  until  a  large 
proportion  of  them  are  removed  and  light  is  freely  admitted  to  the 
ground.     This  is  usualh^  accomplished  by  lire. 

Where,  as  is  frequent,  the  forest  consists  of  an  upper  story  of  large 
Fir  and  a  lower  stovy  of  Hemlock  of  varying  age,  it  often  occurs  that 


Ic'J       J  40        /6J 

AGL-YLAR3 
Fig.  1.— Diagram  showing  lieight  growth  of  mature  Red  Fir  and  of  Hemlock  growing  beneath  it, 
calculated  on  a  basis  of  age. 

as  the  Fir  dies  the  Hemlock  gradually  takes  its  place.  Where  Fir  is 
killed  out  by  conk  or  ground- rot,  the  process  is  often  rapid;  and  exami- 
nation shows  that  the  small  areas  stocked  with  a  pure  growth  of  young 
Hemlock,  so  often  seen  in  the  midst  of  a  Fir  forest,  were  often  caused 
by  this  means.  It  is  proba})le  that  disease  in  the  old  Red  Fir  forests 
is  largely  responsible  for  the  present  distribution  of  Hemlock  in 
W^ashington  and  Oregon. 


(JKOWTH    UNDER    COVER, 


No  tree  grows  as  rapidly  in  the  shade  as  it  does  in  the  light,  and 
Hemlock  which  has  come  in  under  Fir  shows  a  close  and  often  very 


HABIT. 


13 


irregular  grain.  The  rate  of  growth  often  quickens  as  the  tree  pushes 
up  toward  the  light,  ?nd  the  grain  becomes  coarser  and  the  wood 
lighter.  Red  Fir,  on  the  other  hand,  or  Hemlock  which  has  enjoyed 
light  in  3^outh,  shows  a  rapid  growth  near  the  heart  and  a  slow  growth 
near  the  bark,  when  age  has  diminished  the  rate. 

A  peculiar  silvicultural  problem  is  presented  by  the  constant!}^ 
diminishing  density  of  the  Red  Fir  overwood.  Nearly  all  Red  Fir 
forests  start  on  burns  or  open  land  and  are  very  dense  for  the  first  lif ty 
or  one  hundred  3'ears.  The  young  Hemlock  which  starts  beneath  the 
Fir  during  this  period  gets  little  light  and  grows  slowly.     Later,  as 


fm 


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Fig.  2.— Diagraiu  showing  diumt-ler  growth  of  mature  Red  Fir  and  ol'  Htmlock,  calculated  ou  a  basis 

of  age. 

the  Firs  begin  to  crowd  each  other  out,  more  light  is  admitted  and  the 
lower  storj^  of  Hemlock  grows  more  rapidly.  Hence,  the  older  the 
overwood  the  faster  grow  the  Hemlock  seedlings  which  come  in  beneath 
it.  The  culmination  of  height  growth  as  the  Hemlock  approaches 
maturity  therefore  differs  greatl}^  from  that  under  the  usual  forest 
conditions  where  the  supply  of  light  remains  constant.  Instead  of 
falling  off  normally,  as  the  trees  approach  maturity'  the  growth  of 
the  Hemlock  forming  the  lower  story  is  constantly  stimulated  by  the 
diminishing  density  of  the  upper  stor}-  of  Red  Fir.     (Figs.  1,  2.) 


14  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK 


DEMANDS    UPOX    SOIL   AND    MOISTURE. 


The  Hemlock  ranges  from  mucky  swamps  to  rocky  hillsides.  It 
requires,  however,  a  heavy  rainfall  and  is  seldom  found  where  the  pre- 
cipitation averages  less  than  40  inches  annually,  reaching-  best  devel- 
opment where  it  is  above  70  inches.  The  finest  Hemlock  in  Washing- 
ton grows  at  an  altitude  of  2,000  to  8,500  feet  on  the  western  foothills 
of  Mount  Rainier,  where  the  annual  precipitation  is  seldom  less  than 
80  inches  and  snow  lies  half  the  year. 


EEPKODUCTION. 


A  prolific  seeder  and  not  fastidious  as  to  seedbed,  Hemlock  repro- 
duces freeh'  under  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  In  the  drier  inland 
regions,  or  where  the  soil  has  been  severely  burned,  it  does  not  rival 
Red  Fir,  but  on  the  coast  it  far  excels  it.  AMiile  Fir  prefers  a  bare 
mineral  soil.  Hemlock  reproduces  better  on  a  humus  of  leaves  or  rotten 
wood.  (Pis.  IV,  V.)  Stumps  and  fallen  logs  form  a  favorite  seed- 
bed, and  large  trees  are  often  seen  standing  on  leg-like  roots,  which, 
starting  from  the  log  or  stump,  have  extended  downward  to  the  ground, 
finally  to  be  left  unsupported  by  the  decay  of  their  host.  (PI.  IV, 
fig.  1.)  Hemlock  is  thus  enabled  often  to  seed  up  ground  where  there 
is  sufficient  light  for  the  germination  of  Fir.  Insects,  wind,  or  a 
ground  fire  ma}^  cause  a  tangle  of  fallen  timber,  later  covering  the 
ground  with  rotten  wood.  A  few  fires  may  start  under  such  condi- 
tions, but  Hemlock  is  likel}^  to  get  the  masteiy.  Near  South  Bend, 
Wash.,  is  an  illustration  of  this  on  a  large  scale.  About  sixty  years 
ago  the  standing  timber  on  a  tract  covering  nearly  a  township  was 
destroyed.  No  sign  of  fire  is  visible.  Appearances  indicate  that 
this  destruction  was  wrought  l)y  the  measuring  worm,  which  has  since 
attacked  large  areas  of  Hemlock  along  the  coast,  notably  near  Grays 
Harbor  and  in  Oregon.  The  original  stand  was  chiefiy  Hemlock  and 
Spruce;  now,  almost  rotten,  it  covers  the  ground  1  to  2  feet  deep. 
A  few  seed  trees  survive  the  catastrophe  and  record  its  date  clearly 
by  two  or  three  very  close  rings,  .showing  slow  recovery  from  the 
injury,  followed  by  greatly  accelerated  growth  due  to  the  increased 
light.  Although  there  was  an  abundant  supply  of  Red  Fir  seed,  none 
germinated,  and  90  per  cent  of  the  young  growth  now  standing  is 
Hemlock,  with  an  occasional  Spruce  or  Cedar.  The  Hemlock  is  of 
veiy  rapid  growth,  averaging  over  100  feet  high  and  13  inches  in 
diameter  at  55  years  of  age. 

Hemlock  bears  seed  almost  eveiy  year.  The  age  at  which  seed  bear- 
ing begins  varies  with  the  amount  of  light  in  which  the  tree  has  grown. 
Trees  coming  up  in  burns  may  ])ear  when  25  or  30  years  old,  but  those 
which  have  grown  in  the  woods  do  not  bear  until  much  later.  The 
seeds,  like  those  of  most  conifers,  are  winged  and  may  be  carried  great 
distances  by  the  wind. 


33,  Burrjau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricuitu 


Fig    1. —Young  Hemlock  growing  on  Red  Fir  Stump 


Fig.  2. -Hemlock,  Second  Growth,  12  to  14  Years  Old,  on  Logged- 
OFF  Land,  near  Hoquiam,  Wash. 


33,  Bureau  of   Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agncul1ur< 


Fig.   1. -Hemlock  Seedlings  growing  on  Rotten  Wood. 


Fig.  2.— Hemlock,  Second  Guowth,  15  Years  Old,  un  Luguld-off  Land,  near 
HoQuiAM,  Wash. 


ENEMIES.  15 

ENEMIES. 
FUNGI    (conk    and    GROUND-ROT). 

Few  Western  trees  maintain  so  continual  a  warfare  to  preserve  exist- 
ence as  does  the  Hemlock.  Its  shallow  root  S3^stem  is  exposed  to 
ground  fires  and  also  renders  the  tree  unable  to  withstand  heavy  winds. 
The  l)ark  is  thin,  afi'ording  little  protection  against  fire  or  other  injury. 
The  tree  is  liable  in  old  age  to  attack  by  several  fungi,  notably  conk 
{TiUi/ietes  pini  and  Eclunodontlum  tinctorkmi)  and  ground-rot  {Poly- 
poms  schweinitzii).  The  latter  is  the  more  prevalent,  and  makes  long- 
butting  necessary  in  many  localities.  Little  can  be  done  as  yet  to 
prevent  these  timber  diseases,  but  a  better  undei-standing  of  them  may 
impress  upon  the  lumberman  the  advisability  of  utilizing  infected 
timber  before  it  is  ruined.  Both  conk  and  ground-rot  are  active, 
independent  enemies  of  trees,  and  not,  as  is  often  believed,  merely 
followers  of  disease  due  to  unfavorable  conditions. 

The  "conk"  or  bracket  seen  on  affected  trees  is  the  fruiting  organ. 
On  its  under  side  are  innumerable  minute  spores  or  seeds.  (PI.  VI, 
fig.  1.)  These  float  through  the  air  and  lodge  upon  other  trees. 
Conk  spores  never  enter  through  the  bark,  but  usually  through  the 
scars  of  broken  branches.  Once  the  spore  is  established,  root-like 
fibers  grow  inward,  destroying  the  structure  of  the  wood.  When  suf- 
ficient nourishment  has  been  extracted  a  small  conk  is  produced, 
which  grows  b}"  annual  layers  on  its  under  side,  and  in  turn  liberates 
millions  of  spores. 

Conk  spreads  rapidly,  especialh"  where  the  trees  are  badly  scarred. 
Storms  aid  the  disease  by  breaking  man}^  branches.  Trees  which  have 
grown  in  an  open  stand  in  youth  are  apt  to  become  conkj'  because  the 
branches  are  large,  and,  when  the}'  finally  die  off',  they  leave  wounds 
which  often  do  not  heal  over  thoroughly.  Damp  climates  and  soils 
are  favorable  to  the  growth  of  conk. 

In  ground-rot  the  fruiting  organs  are  on  or  near  the  roots.  Hence 
the  spread  to  other  trees  is  usually  brought  about  either  by  direct 
infection  of  interlacing  roots  or  by  the  carrying  of  spores  in  the  fur  of 
burrowing  animals.  Hence  ground-rot  is  apt  to  spread  more  slowly 
than  conk  and  to  be  confined  to  spots  in  the  forest.  On  the  other 
hand,  since  the  tender  growing  ends  of  roots  ma}'  be  infected  without 
first  being  scarred,  the  existence  of  one  diseased  tree  is  almost  certain 
to  affect  a  group.  Conk  and  ground-rot  in  Red  Fir,  Hemlock,  and 
Spruce  are  caused  by  the  same  fungi  and  may  be  communicated  from 
one  species  to  another. 

It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  immediate  cutting  of  diseased  trees 
is  advisable,  not  only  to  save  as  much  timber  as  possible,  but  in  order 
to  prevent  the  infection  of  others.  The  merchantable  stand  of  many 
tracts  of  Red  Fir  in  Washington  has  been  reduced  one-third  by  conk 
in  ten  years.     It  would  often  be  better  policy  to  incur  considerable 


16  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

expense  in  lumbering-  oonky  trees  ininiediately  than  to  cut  onh'  ths 
sound  timber  near  at  hand. 

The  occurrence  of  fungous  diseases  is  quite  variable,  but  probably  20 
or  2.5  per  cent  of  all  Hemlock  under  8  feet  in  diameter  is  affected. 
Above  that  diameter  the  percentag^e  is  larger — possibly  50  per  cent. 
Red  Fir  suffers  much  less,  except  in  central  and  southern  Oregon, 
where  from  80  to  -iO  per  cent  is  diseased.  These  estimates  do  not 
mean  that  so  large  a  portion  of  the  standing  timber  is  actually  lost,  for 
often  part  of  a  diseased  tree  can  be  used,  especially  in  the  case  of 
ground-rot,  when  long-butting  constitutes  the  only  loss.  (PI.  VIII, 
fig.  2.) 

INSECTS. 

Dr.  A.  D.  Hopkins,  of  the  Division  of  Entomology,  U.  S.  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  who  has  charge  of  the  investigation  of  forest 
insects,  has  kindly  furnished  the  following  information  relating  to  the 
insects  of  the  Western  Hemlock,  mainly  (juoted  from  data  published 
by  him: 

Very  little  is  known  of  the  insect  enemies  of  the  Western  Hemlock,  or  of  methods 
of  preventing  losses  from  their  ravages.  During  my  investigation  in  the  Northwest 
in  the  spring  of  1899,  under  authorization  from  the  honorable  Secretary  of  Agricul- 
ture and  instructions  from  Dr.  L.  O.  Howard,  some  observations  were  made  which 
convinced  me  that  the  Western  Hemlock  has  some  very  destructive  insect  enemies. 

In  my  preliminary  report  on  the  "Insect  Enemies  of  Forests  in  the  Northwest," 
Bulletin  21,  N.  S.,  U.  S.  Department  of  Agriculture,  the  following  references  are 
made  to  some  of  the  insects  observed: 

On  page  8,  to  an  undescribed  bark-beetle  {Hi/lesinus  sp. ),  which  was  found  at  New- 
poit,  Oreg.,  to  be  quite  common  in  recently  felled  Hendock. 

On  page  9,  to  a  trouble  which  had  caused  the  death  of  a  large  number  of  Noble  Fir 
and  Hemlock  in  the  Cascade  Forest  Reserve  near  Berry,  Oreg.  While  I  was  not  able 
to  secure  specimens  of  the  insects  which  doubtless  caused  the  death  of  these  trees 
owing  to  the  fact  that  the  trees  had  been  dead  too  long,  I  concluded  from  the  char- 
acter of  their  work  on  the  outer  sapwood  that  it  must  be  a  Buprestid,  possibly 
belonging  to  the  genus  Melanophila.  Many  of  the  wounds  made  by  the  insect  had 
healed  over  before  the  trees  died,  thus  presenting  conclusive  evidence  that  they 
were  attacked  while  living  and  probably  while  in  a  healthy  condition. 

In  the  vicinity  of  St.  Helen,  Oreg.,  investigations  were  made  of  a  serious  trouble 
affecting  the  Hemlock  and  Red  Fir,  which  proved  to  be  similar  to,  if  not  identical  with, 
that  affecting  the  Hemlock  and  Noble  Fir  in  the  Cascade  Reserve.  The  work  of  appar- 
ently the  same  Buprestid  larvje  was  found  in  healthy,  dead,  and  dying  trees,  and  I 
was  fortunate  in  securing  a  few  larv;c;  also  some  nice  specimens  of  healed-over  gal- 
leries. The  latter  presented  conclusive  evidence  that  the  attack  had  been  made  on 
healthy  growing  trees.  It  seems  that  the  trees  succumV)  only  after  several  years  of 
successive  attack  by  this  insect.  The  extensive  cutting  of  timber  for  fuel  carried  on 
here  does  not  seem  to  answer  the  usual  purpose  of  attracting  the  insects  away  from 
the  living  trees;  therefore  this  is  a  problem  of  considerable  interest,  and,  under  more 
favorable  conditions  for  study,  should  receive  attention  in  order  to  determine  some 
methods  of  preventing  the  ravages,  which  may  prove  to  be  even  more  extensive  than 
at  present. 


Jul.  33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept,  of  Agriculture. 


Fig.  1.— "Conky"  living  Hemlock,  showing  Fruiting  Organs. 


Fig.  2. -Distortion  of  Trunk  and  Branches  of  Hemlock,  caused  by 
Arceuthobium  occidentale. 


3ul.  33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agricuitu 


Fig.  I.—'- Black  Check"  in  Hemlock  Lumber,  caused  by  Insect 
Injury  when  Tree  was  small. 


Fig.  2.— Hemlock,  near  Hoquiam.  Wash.,  killed  by  Buprestid  Larv/e. 


ENEMIES.  17 

In  the  vicinity  of  Ahlers  (now  Push),  Oreg.,  1  found  a  vast  amount  of  dead  Spruce 
and  Hemlock.  The  trees  had  been  dead  eight  or  nine  years,  and  hence  it  was  not 
possible  to  personally  investigate  the  cause  of  the  trouble.  I  was  particularly  fortu- 
nate, however,  in  obtaining  from  the  postmaster,  Mr.  Herman  Ahlers,  a  most  inter- 
esting account  of  the  beginning  and  ending  of  the  trouble  as  observed  by  him  at  the 
time.  (Page  10.)  The  work  of  this  insect  has  not,  I  believe,  been  previously 
recorded. 

Mr.  Ahlers  says:  "The  worms  commenced  to  attract  a  little  attention  here  in  1889. 
A  few  moths  were  seen  in  the  fall  of  the  same  year.  In  July,  1890,  the  worms 
appeared  in  great  numbers,  the  first  on  the  Hemlock,  feeding  on  the  base  of  the 
leaves  and  cutting  them  off.  When  standing  beneath  the  trees  the  droppings  from 
the  insects  and  the  falling  leaves  sounded  like  rain.  When  all  of  the  leaves  were 
eaten  from  the  trees  the  worms  would  let  themselves  down  by  means  of  webs,  and 
if  they  were  not  full  grown  would  feed  on  the  leaves  of  all  kinds  of  shrubs  and  trees, 
except  the  Douglas  Spruce  and  Cedar.  The  worms  were  observed  during  July  and 
August  and  disappeared  in  the  latter  month,  probably  going  into  the  ground  to 
pupate.  In  October  the  moths  began  to  come  out.  They  were  grayish  white  with 
dark  markings  on  the  wings.  The  wings  spread  about  li  inches.  The  moths  would 
appear  on  the  wing  about  3  o'clock  in  the  afternoon  in  enormous  swarms  around  the 
tops  of  the  trees,  resembling  a  white  cloud.  They  continued  to  fly  for  about  three 
weeks,  at  the  end  of  Avhich  time  the  ground  was  covered  with  the  dead  insects,  and 
the  small  streams  were  filled  with  them,  in  some  places  forming  dams.  The  next 
year,  1891,  they  attacked  the  Sitka  Spruce  and  defoliated  the  trees,  which  died  the 
following  fall  or  winter.  *  *  *  When  the  worms  were  coming  down  from  the 
trees  the  webs  made  the  trees  look  as  if  they  were  covered  with  a  grayish  veil.  The 
worms  were  about  Ij  inches  long,  the  sides  grayish  green,  with  darker  gray  zigzag 
markings  on  the  back.  When  traveling  they  measured  their  way.  This  trouble 
extended  over  parts  of  Clatsop  and  Tillamook  counties,  killing  all  the  Hemlock  and 
Sitka  Spruce  in  a  belt  between  elevations  of  about  450  and  1,200  feet  above  tide.  The 
Douglas  Spruce  and  Ked  Cedar  were  not  injured."     (Page  18. ) 

At  the  time  of  my  visit  much  of  the  area  covered  by  dead  timber  had  been  fre- 
quently burned  over  by  forest  fires,  so  that  in  some  places  nearly  all  of  the  dead  tim- 
ber had  disappeared,  but  in  other  places,  where  the  conditions  had  not  been  so 
favorable  for  the  spread  of  the  fire,  the  dead,  barkless  trunks  of  the  trees  were  still 
standing,  the  tops  broken  and  the  branches  fallen,  the  scene  presenting  at  once  a 
most  impressive  example  of  the  destructive  powers  of  an  insect  enemy  of  forests  and 
of  subsequent  devastation  by  forest  fires. 

While  the  caterpillars,  which  were  primarily  to  blame  for  this  destruction,  have 
not  attracted  attention  in  recent  years,  they  will  doubtless  make  their  appearance 
again  in  destructive  numbers  and  attack  the  remaining  timber,  which  is  becoming 
each  year  more  accessible  to  lumbering  operations,  and  hence  rapidly  increasing  in 
value. 

On  page  17  further  reference  is  made  to  the  Buprestid  enemy  of  the  Hemlock,  Red 
Fir,  and  Xoble  Fir: 

"The  evidence  found  in  living,  dying,  and  dead  Xoble  Fir  and  Hemlock  in  the 
Cascade  Forest  Reserve  at  Berry,  Oreg.,  and  in  Hemlock  and  Red  Fir  along  the 
Columbia  River  in  the  vicinity  of  St.  Helen,  indicated  that  much  loss  of  valuable 
timber  had  been  due  to  the  work  of  Buprestid  larvte  in  the  living  bark  of  these 
trees.  The  conditions  at  the  time  were  not  favorable  for  a  study  of  this  class  of 
enemies  or  for  a  special  investigation  of  the  damage  which  seemed  to  be  due  to  their 
attacks.  It  is,  however,  a  subject  of  special  importance,  which  will  demand  con- 
siderable attention  in  the  future.  Specimens  of  larvae  collected  frorii  the  bark  of 
living  trees  were  provisionally  identified  by  Mr.  Schwarz  as  belonging  to  the  genus 

22020— No.  33—02 2 


18  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

Melanophila,  prol)al)ly  M.  <JrummomU,  which  is  closely  allied  to  M.  fnhoguttata,  a 
destructive  enemy  of  the  Hemlock  in  West  Virginia.  An  undetermined  Cerambycid 
bark-borer  was  found  associated  with  the  Buprestid  larvae  in  Hemlock  and  Red  Fir, 
but  the  evidence  pointed  to  the  Buprestid  as  having  made  the  first  attack." 

These  bark-infesting  enemies  are  again  referred  to  by  me  in  the  Forester,  Volume 
VII,  October,  1901,  page  251,  as  follows: 

"The  Douglas  Sjaruce  bark-borer  {AKemurn  nitidum  Lee),  the  Western  Heinlock 
bark-beetle  (Ilijlesimis  tmg,r  Hopk.  MS.),  and  the  Western  Hemlock  bark-borer 
{ iMelanopJiila  (Irnmmondi  Kirhy),  infest  the  living  bark,  and  either  kill  the  trees  or 
cause  gum-spots  in  the  wood  of  the  Douglas  Spruce  and  Western  Hemlock  in  Oregon 
and  Washington." 

They  are  again  referred  to  in  the  Proceedings  of  the  Society  for  the  Promotion  of 
Agricultural  Science,  1891,  pages  66,  67,  under  the  head  of  "Some  Insect  Enemies  of 
Living  Trees,"  as  follows: 

"The  Western  Hemlock  bark-beetle  [IliiUsnnus  tmg;c  Hopk.  MS.)  attacks  the  living 
trees,  and  either  kills  them  or  causes  defects  known  as  gum  spots  in  the  wocmI  of  the 
Western  Hemlock.     It  is  found  at  Newport,  Oreg.,  and  Port  Angeles,  Wash. 

"The  Douglas  Spruce  bark-borer  (Asenmm  nitidum  Lee.)  is  a  round-headed  bark- 
l)oring  grub,  the  larva  of  one  of  the  long-horn  beetles.  It  was  found  to  be  a  very 
common  enemy  of  the  Douglas  Spruce  and  Western  Hemlock  in  western  Oregon  and 
Washington.  The  healed-over  wounds  in  the  living  bark  cause  gum-sjx)t  defects  in 
the  wood,  and  tlie  trees  die  from  successive  attacks. 

"The  Western  Hemlock  bark-borer  {Meknwphila  dnuninondi  Kirby)  is  a  medium- 
sized  flat-headed  l)ark-boring  larva  of  a  Buprestid  beetle.  This  insect  excavates 
shallow  winding  burrows  through  the  inner  layers  of  bark  of  living  Hemlock  and 
Douglas  Spruce.  It  was  ol)served  from  California  to  northern  and  eastern  Washing- 
ton and  western  Idaho.  This  is  a  very  common  enemy,  killing  the  largest  and  best 
trees  or  causing  serious  gum-spots  in  the  wood  of  those  which  survive  its  attack." 

BORING    BEETLES. 

Among  the  wood-boring  l)eetles  and  flat  and  round  heade<l  wood-boring  grubs, 
there  are  numerous  species  which  cause  more  or  less  injury  to  the  wood  of  living, 
dying,  and  felled  trees.  The  wood-boring  beetles  cause  pin-hole  defects  and  bluing 
of  the  wood,  which  result  in  considerable  loss  to  the  manufacturer  of  lumber  from 
this  tree. 

Much  of  this  loss  can  Ije  i)revented  by  removing  the  l)ark  from  the  logs  of  trees 
which  are  felled  or  remain  in  the  woods  for  some  time  after  the  1st  of  April,  since, 
as  a  rule,  most  of  these  insects  will  attack  only  trees  and  logs  which  have  the 
bark  on. 

It  is  the  intention  to  make  a  special  investigation  during  this  sunnner  to  determine, 
if  possible,  the  exa<'t  species  to  blame  for  the  defoliation  of  the  Hemlock  and  Douglas 
Spnice  in  western  Oregon  and  Washington.  Further  investigation  will  also  be  made 
of  the  other  insect  enemies  of  the  Hemlock  and  other  forest  trees  of  that  region, 
the  results  of  which  will  ap])ear  in  a  forthcoming  bulletin  of  the  Division  of  Ento- 
mology. 

A  tradition  around  Grays  Harbor  accounts  for  the  disappearance  of 
the  insect  that  defoliates  the  Hemlock  by  affirming  that  the  females 
are  wingless,  and,  as  the  immense  numbers  rapidly  destroyed  the  food 
supply,  were  unable  to  travel  fast  enough  to  reach  fresh  pastures 
before  the  males  had  eaten  everything  clean.  This  .story  is  of  some 
interest,  inasnuich  as   there  are  species   of  Geomterid  in  which  the 


ENEMIES.  19 

females  have  abortive  wings,  and  a  clue  to  the  identity  of  the  moth 
is  siig-o-ested.  It  is  also  quite  possible  that  it  is  founded  only  on  io-no- 
rance  of  the  history  of  insects  and  the  supposition  that  the  moth  and 
caterpillar  were  of  different  sexes. 

Were  it  ix)ssible  to  identify  this  insect,  enough  might  be  known  of 
its  habits  to  warrant  predictions  of  its  behavior  in  the  future;  under 
the  circumstances  it  is  possible  only  to  say  that  another  attack  may 
occur  at  any  time.  Aside  from  the  direct  loss,  the  destruction  of  so 
large  a  body  of  standing  timber  creates,  as  suggested  by  Dr.  Hopkins, 
a  lire  trap,  which  menaces  the  forests  of  the  surrounding  region,  and 
it  is  quite  possilile  that  many  of  the  former  large  tires  of  the  coast 
region  were  due  to  this  cause.  With  so  great  a  rainfall  and  a  dense 
green  underbrush,  the  forest  seldom,  if  ever,  becomes  dry  enough  to 
burn  without  some  unusual  aid,  yet  there  is  abimdant  evidence  that 
the  whole  region  'has  been  swept  clean  by  tire.  It  is  difficult  in  any 
other  way  to  account  for  the  existing  stand  of  old  red  fir,  since  it  is  a 
species  which  requires  open  ground  for  germination. 

BLACK    CHPX'K. 

In  1900  the  larvae  of  an  insect  were  discovered  living  in  the  ))ark 
and  apparently  causing  a  serious  injury  known  as  black  check. 
Investigation  showed  this  process  in  all  its  stages — the  fresh  wound, 
with  the  grub  at  work  in  it,  partially  covered  scars  of  a  year  or  two 
ago,  and  blackened  spots  buried  several  inches  where  they  would  be 
opened  if  the  log  came  to  the  saw.  The  presence  of  larva  is  always 
betrayed  by  a  flow  of  resin.  Several  specimens  were  collected  and 
were  identified  b}'  Messrs.  Coquillot  and  Schwarz,  of  the  Division 
of  Entomology,  as  an  unknown  species  of  the  family  of  Syrphida^, 
genus  X3dota.  Since  it  is  the  habit  of  this  genus  to  lay  its  eggs  in 
the  galleries  of  bark  beetles,  it  seems  probable  that  this  species  obtains 
entrance  in  the  same  way,  although  no  evidence  was  found  to  show 
previous  occupancy  of  the  burrows.  As  such  insects  are  often  second- 
arv  and  not  originally  responsible  for  the  injury  which  is  attributed  to 
them,  careful  search  was  made  for  similar  burrows  not  occupied  by 
the  Xylota  larva,  Init  none  were  found  in  an  investigation  carried  on 
for  several  months.  The  most  plausible  explanation  is  that  the  female 
deposits  the  egg  in  the  gallery  of  some  Scolytid  which  does  little  or 
no  damage  to  the  tree,  and  that  the  attack  on  the  wood  is  made  by  the 
Xylota  larva  upon  emerging  from  the  ogg.  In  the  fall  the  larva 
leaves  the  cavity  and  buries  itself  in  the  mass  of  pitch  which  has  col- 
lected outside  the  bark,  there  assuming  the  pupal  stage. 

The  only  forest  region  found  wholly  free  from  this  enemy  was  a 
belt  along  the  west  slope  of  the  Cascades,  above  an  elevation  of  1,800 
feet.  If  altitude  proves  responsible  for  this  iumiunity,  a  similar 
region  in  the  Olympics  will  probably  also  })e  found  free  from  attack. 


"20  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

The  danoer  is  lessened  ))y  thick  hurk.  which  renders  it  ditticult  for  the 
insects  to  enter.  For  the  same  reason  large  trees  are  safer  than  small 
ones.  The}'  are  frequently  streaked  near  the  center,  but  not  toward 
the  outside,  showing-  that  when  the  tree  reached  a  certain  size  its  bark 
became  thick  enough  to  protect  it.  (PL  VII,  tig.  1.)  As  yet  protec- 
tive measures  against  this  insect  are  unknown,  but  much  disappoint- 
ment might  be  prevented  b}^  an  examination  of  standing  timber  for 
traces  of  the  insects.  It  is  useless  for  manufacturers  of  cooper  stock 
or  finishing  lumber  to  bu}'  infected  logs.  The  presence  of  the  larva 
in  the  standing  tree  is  always  apparent  to  a  close  observer. 

IMMUNITY    FROM    WHITE    ANTS    (tERMITES). 

Experiments  made  in  Manila  indicate  that  Hemlock  may  prove  of 
special  value  in  tropical  countries  where  most  woods  are  destroj^ed  b}^ 
ants.  Capt.  George  P.  Ahern,  chief  of  the  Philippine  forestry  bureau, 
states  in  a  recent  report  that  the  master  mechanic  of  the  depot  quarter- 
master's shops,  Mr.  D.  N.  McChesney,  tested  several  American  woods 
by  thirty  da^'s'  exposure  to  the  attack  of  ants  with  the  following 
results: 

Oregon  Pine  (Red  Fir) Entered  and  eaten;  a  mere  matter  of  time  for  complete 

destruction. 
Bull  Pine  ^ 


Eaten  more  readily  than  Oregon  Pine. 


Spruce  . .  /■ 

California  Redwood . . .  -.  .    ,    ,        , .  .        ,     . 

California  White  Cedar  [  -  ^^"^^  ^'''''^'  ^'"^  'li^contumed  alter  .light  effort. 

Hemlock Not  touched. 

Further  experiment  is  now  being  made.  Since  the  depredations  of 
ants  are  of  great  importance,  not  only  in  the  Philippines  but  in  other 
tropical  countries,  a  wood  which  will  withstand  them  is  certain  of  a 
good  market.  Although  Cedar  and  Redwood  have  the  reputation 
of  being  ant  proof,  they  are  not  adapted  to  manv  uses  for  which 
Hemlock  is  excellent. 

For  many  3'ears  farmers  have  used  Hemlock  for  the  construction  of 
oat  bins  and  similar  receptacles  designed  to  be  rat  and  mouse  proof. 
It  is  said  that  the  wood  is  distasteful  to  all  rodents. 


A  parasite  {Arceuthohium  occidentale)  resembling  mistletoe  is  wide- 
spread throughout  the  Hemlock  region.  It  grows  upon  the  branches 
and  leading  shoots,  causing  distortions  and  occasionalh'  death.  When 
the  branches  only  are  attacked,  the  result  is  a  disturbance  of  their 
functions,  and  consequently  a  slow,  sickly  growth  of  the  tree,  which, 
however,  does  not  affect  the  quality  of  the  timber.  If,  however,  the 
plant  gets  foothold  on  the  leading  shoot,  a  burl  follows  which  persists 


3ul.  33,  Bureau  of   Forestry,  U.  S.  Oept.  of  Agriculture 


Plate  VIII. 


Fig.  1 .— Fasciation  of  Hemlock  Branch,  caused  by  Arceuthobium  occidentale. 


Fig.  2.— Hemlock  Stump,  cut  high  to  avoid  Ground-rot. 


THE    WOOD.  21 

throughout  tho  life  of  the  trci;  aiid  not  only  ruins  a  lojjf,  Imt  renders 
the  tree  apt  to  he  broken  by  the  wind.     (PI.  V^I,  lig-,  2.) 

The  mode  of  proi)agation  of  Arccutbobiuiu  is  curiou.s.  Male  and 
female  flowers  are  on  separate  plants,  and  the-  fruit,  borne  late  in  the 
fall,  is  a  berr}'  containing  a  sticky  seed.  When  rip(!,  but  only  in  dry 
weather,  the  l)erry  explodes,  throwing  the  seed  several  feet.  Tf  it 
happens  to  strike  the  branch  of  the  same  or  another  Hemlock,  its  glu- 
tinous covering  enables  it  to  adhere  until  it  g(M"minates  and  forces  r<xjts 
through  the  bark  of  its  host.  Since  this  is  possible  onl}^  on  the  thin, 
tender  l)aik  of  young  wood,  the  older  portions  of  the  ti'ee  arc  exempt. 
After  a  few  years  the  parasite  dies,  but  the  distortion  caused  by  it 
remains  and  the  ))ranch  dies  or  remains  permanently  diseased.  Its 
lateral  growth  usually  stops  and  a  fan-like  mat  of  twigs  radiates  fi-om 
the  injured  portion.     (PI.  VIII,  fig.  1.) 

In  a  few  coast  districts  aiifl  cool  mountain  valleys  tlu^  ArcciUhobium 
rendei-s  tin;  Ilendock  pra(;tically  woi-thless,and  by  covering  the  ground 
with  fallen  trees  and  branches  inci"(;ases  the  danger  frotn  fire.  The 
enfeebl(;ment  of  the  trees  doubtless  also  facilitates  the  (uitrancc  of 
fungous  diseases.  Where  the  parasite  is  abundant,  the  trees  die  at 
the  top  and  their  crowns  become  tufted  and  narrow.  It  does  not  gen- 
erally occur  in  suffif-ient  (juantity  to  be  of  economi(;  importance  and 
need  not  enter  into  a  discussion  of  tlx-  use  and  future!  of  Hemlock. 

THE  WOOD. 

There  is  little  similarit}'  between  the  wood  of  the  East(!ni  and 
Western  Hemlock.  That  of  the  Western  tree  is  light,  rathe i-  hard, 
straight  grained,  tasteless,  tough,  and  usually  white,  although  often 
reddish-brown  in  the  interior  of  the  ti'ce.  This  discoloration  is  not 
confined  to  the  heartwood,  but  may  extend  into  th<!  sap,  and  is  usually 
darkest  where  it  does  so.  It  is  a  serious  defect  in  timber  which  is  used 
forpul|)wood,  for  finishing,  or  as  a  substitute  for  Spruce.  Trees  thus 
afiected  are  connnonlv  known  by  lumbermen  as  '' Black  Hcndock,"  and 
are  frequently  believed  to  be  a  difierent  species.  This  does  not  refer 
to  the  true  Black  or  Alpine  Hemlock,  which  grows  c>nly  at  gi-eat  alti- 
tudes and  is  not  \'et  available  for  lumber. 

In  strength,  ease  of  working,  and  fi'e(,'dom  fiom  waip  and  siiake, 
Western  Hemlock  diflers  greatly  from  the  Eastern  sjjecies,  whose 
deficiencies  in  these  respects  are  its  chief  drawbacks.  Western  Hem- 
lock can  not  be  classed  in  strength  with  Oak,  lied  Fir,  or  Longleaf 
Pine,  nor  is  it  suitable  for  heavy  construction,  especially  where 
exposed  to  the  weather;  but  it  possesses  all  the  strength  requisite  for 
ordinary  building  material.  It  is  largely  used  in  Washington  for  mill 
frames. 

When  green,  Hemlock  contains  much  water  and  is  very  heav^y;  when 
dry  it  is  but  little  heavier  than  Spruce,  in  some  localities  no  heavier. 


22  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

The  following  table  gives  the  weights  of  thoroughly  kiln-dried  Hem- 
lock and  that  of  four  well-known  woods,  per  cubic  foot: 

Table  1. —  Weight  per  cubic  foot  of  Hemlock-  and  other  in/l-knovn  woods. 

Pounds. 

Western  Hemlock 26.  95 

Eastern  Hemlock 26.  42 

"White  Pine 24. 02 

Sitka  Spruce 26.  72 

Red  Fir 32. 14 

The  weight  given  for  "Western  Hemlock  is  the  average  of  1,500  feet 
B.  M.  taken  from  different  Cascade  camps  at  different  times,  and  was 
obtained  by  a  member  of  the  Bureau  of  Forestr}-.  The  weights  of 
the  other  species  are  quoted  from  the  Tenth  Census  of  the  United 
States,  Vol.  IX.  The  weight  of  Hemlock  varies  g'reatly  with  localit}'' 
•and  rate  of  growth,  and  in  the  tree  itself. 

DURABILITY. 

The  dura])ility  of  this  timber  is  still  largelj^  a  matter  of  conjecture. 
There  are  no  recorded  experiments,  and  it  has  until  recently  been 
but  little  used.  It  is  probable,  however,  that  its  durability  has  been 
greatly  underrated.  Although  not  a  hardwood,  it  has  given  satisfac- 
tory service  in  floors  for  several  years.  It  is  the  general  experience 
that  Hemlock  skids,  dams,  and  bridges  in  the  woods  are  short  lived, 
but  this  may  be  in  part  because  the  wood  is  used  unbarked  and  never 
becomes  dry.  Green  Hemlock  is  exceedingly  sappy,  heavy,  and  liable 
to  attack  by  fungi  and  insects.  It  is  not  adapted  for  use  partly  in  the 
ground.  While  the  popular  prejudice  has  prevented  its  extended  use 
for  piles,  a  few  instances  go  to  prove  that  Hemlock  piles  last  almost 
if  not  quite  as  long  as  those  of  Fir.  In  salt  water  both  stand  until 
destroyed  by  teredoes  or  limnoria;  in  fresh  water  Hemlock  lasts  about 
ten  years.  Hemlock  is,  however,  softer  than  Fir  and  more  apt  to  be 
crushed  in  driving,  and  is  less  able  to  withstand  a  great  strain  success- 
inWy.  In  ease  of  working  it  is  between  Fir  and  Spruce,  taking  a 
smoother  surface  and  cutting  more  easily  than  the  former.  It  is 
readily  turned,  and  the  straight,  even  grain  renders  it  free  from 
brashiness  or  tendency  to  chip.  There  is  very  little  contrast  between 
the  hard  and  the  soft  grain,  and  this  feature,  with  the  absence  of 
pitch,  makes  it  susceptible  of  a  beautiful  finish. 

DEFECTS. 

The  chief  of  these  are  "black  streaks"  or  checks,  black  knots,  and 
the  red  heart  already  described.  The  latter  is  serious  when  the 
infected  wood  is  used  for  pulp,  on  account  of  the  color  of  the  product; 
as  lumber,  it  is  undesirable  for  ornamental  work  and  prevents  substi- 


THE    WOOD.  23 

tution  for  Spruce.  It  i.^,  however,  easily  detected  and  the  lotjs  may 
be  scaled  down  accordingly.  The  black  knots,  due  to  a  fung-ous  dis- 
ease occurring-  where  shade-killed  branches  have  improperly  healed, 
almost  wholly  ruin  the  lumber  in  which  they  occur.  They  are,  how- 
ever, confined  mostly  to  trees  near  the  coast.  The  black  streaks, 
which  have  resulted  in  bewilderment  and  consternation  on  the  part  of 
those  who  have  tried  to  manufacture  finer  articles  of  Hemlock,  is  a 
widespread  and  serious  evil  for  which  no  remedy  is  as  yet  apparent. 
They  are  from  three-quarters  of  an  inch  to  3  inches  long,  seldom  over 
five-eighths  wide,  and  very  thin.  (PI.  VII,  fig.  1.)  The  streaks  lie  with 
the  g-rain  and  become  very  conspicuous  if  the  log  is  bastard  sawn.  In 
boards  cut  across  the  grain  they  are  less  conspicuous,  but  kiln  drying 
is  apt  to  open  them  clear  through  the  board  and  to  render  the  latter 
useless  where  tightness  is  required.  This  is  one  of  the  chief  objections 
to  the  use  of  Hemlock  for  wooden  ware,  for  which  it  is  otherwise 
excellent.  This  defect,  varying-  greatly  in  degree,  is  widespread 
throughout  Washington  and  Oregon  and  necessitates  care  in  the  selec- 
tion of  Hemlock  from  certain  localities.  It  is  less  prevalent  upon  the 
higher  slopes  of'  the  Cascades,  while  toward  the  upper  limit  of  the 
tree  the  defect  does  not  occur. 

Besides  the  three  defects  mentioned  above.  Hemlock  lumber  fre- 
quently shows  the  perforations  of  boring  beetles.  This  is,  however, 
usually  the  result  of  careless  handling  of  the  logs  and  is  too  local  in 
distribution  to  be  quoted  as  an  objection  to  Hemlock  lumber  generally. 


Hemlock  is  best  adapted  for  uses  which  require  ease  of  working,  a 
handsome  finish,  and  lightness  combined  with  considerable  strength. 
It  has  been  found  suitable  for  flooring,  joists  and  scantling,  laths, 
siding,  ceiling,  box  shooks,  turned  stock,  newel  and  pan&l  work, 
woodenware,  and  paper  pulp.  It  is,  however,  for  finishing-  and  box 
manufacture  that  it  is  most  certain  of  appreciation  when  it  becomes 
better  known.  Taking  a  high  polish,  free  from  pitch,  and,  when 
properly  sawed,  showing  a  beautiful  grain,  it  is  an  excellent  wood  for 
wainscot,  panels,  and  newels.  It  is  harder  and  less  easily  dented 
than  Redwood  or  Cedar,  and  has  a  uniformly  firm  grain  which  on 
drying  does  not  show  the  minute  corrugations  characteristic  of  Bed 
Fir  and  other  trees  having  a  marked  difi'erence  between  summer  and 
fall  wood.  The  St.  Paul  and  Tacoma  Lumber  Company,  of  Tacoma, 
has  an  oflice  finished  in  Hemlock  which  attracts  much  admiration,  and 
builders  of  many  stores  and  residences  on  Grays  Harbor  have  selected 
it  as  the  most  ornamental  of  Western  woods  for  inside  finishing. 

Of  greater  economic  importance,  however,  is  the  use  of  Hemlock  as 
a  substitute  for  Spruce  and  White  Pine  in  the  manufacture  of  boxes. 
The  scarcity  of  timber  suitable  for  this  purpose  is  a  cause  of  much 


24  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

concern  even  in  the  West.  The  United  States  Geological  Survey  esti- 
mates the  quantit}'  of  standing  Spruce  in  Washington  at  less  than  6^ 
billion  feot.  Oregon  contains  much  less.  Spruce  is  in  demand  for 
pulp  as  well  as  for  l)OX  material  and  Avoodenware  stock,  and  the  avail- 
able supply  is  going  rapidly.  Spruce  logs  are  the  dearest  in  the 
market,  and  Spruce  is  not  easv  to  get  at  any  price. 

Hemlock  is  not  used  for  pulp  in  Washington.  Probal)ly  half  the 
quantity  now  sawed  in  that  State  goes  into  "Spruce"  boxes,  for  the 
manufacture  of  which  it  is  admirably  adapted  in  color,  w^eight,  and 
tastelcssness.  The  objections  are  that  very  thin  stock  is  more  apt  than 
Spruce  to  split  and  that  on  account  of  "black  knots"  only  clear  lum- 
ber can  be  used.  The  latter  objection  is  contined  mainly  to  timber 
from  near  the  coast.  With  the  failing  supply  of  Spruce  the  necessity 
for  the  general  use  of  Hemlock  becomes  urgent,  but  so  far  few 
manufacturers  have  had  courage  to  use  it  under  its  own  name,  and 
its  substitution  for  Spruce  can  be  carried  on  only  to  a  limited  extent. 
Were  'it  well  understood  that  Hemlock  boxes  are  practically  as  light 
and  tasteless  as  those  of  Spruce,  a  market  for  Hemlock  would  be 
opened  immediately.  An  evidence  of  the  adaptation  of  Hemlock  for 
food  packages  is  the  fact  that  early  settlers  in  Washington  invariably 
used  it  for  hewn  tubs  in  which  to  pack  their  winter  butter. 

After  considerable  experiment  a  large  paper  mill  at  Lowell,  Wash., 
has  decided  unfavorably  against  Hemlock.  On  the  other  hand,  it  is 
largeh'  used  in  Oregon,  where  it  is  pronounced  better  than  the  East- 
ern species.  Since  it  is  impossible  altogether  to  avoid  red-hearted  or 
"black"  logs,  the  color  is  the  chief  objection  and  makes  the  use  of 
ground  Hemlock  pulp  impracticable  for  the  manufacture  of  better 
grades  of  paper,  although  soda  and  sulphite  processes  bleach  the  wood 
sufficiently  unless  it  is  unusually  bad.  The  Oregon  mills  buy  only 
upland  logs.  Those  from  the  coast  are  apt  to  be  faster  grown,  of 
coarser  liber,  darker,  and  more  frequently  ati'ected  by  black  knots. 
Several  camps  in  Oregon  put  in  large  quantities  of  Hemlock  for  pulp 
alone  and  receive  on  an  average  $4.50  per  thousand.  The  bark  is  fre- 
quently given  away  on  condition  that  it  be  removed  from  the  log.  It 
brings  |10  to  $12  a  ctn-d  at  the  tannery. 

MANUFACTUBING  PROBLEMS. 
PRESENT   MARKET   STANDING. 

E^xcept  to  a  limit(>d  extent  for  pulp.  Western  Hemlock  is  at  present 
absolutely  without  standing  in  the  market.  A  few  million  feet  are  cut 
annualh^  but  are  manufactured  and  sold  under  the  name  of  Spruce  or 
Fir.  It  is  a  breach  of  confidence  for  the  logger  to  disclose  the  name 
of  a  customer  to  whom  he  sells  Hemlock.  It  is  never  quoted  in  local 
trade  journals.     Notwithstandmg  these  facts,  mill   men   almost  uni- 


MANUFACTUKING    PROBLEMS.  25 

versalh'  admit  that  they  con.sider  it  an  excellent  timber  and  deplore 
the  conditions  which  prohibit  its  use.  There  are  three  main  reasons 
for  this  state  of  afiairs: 

(1)  The  prejudice  of  the  consumer,  who  condemns  Hemlock  without 
trial  because  of  its  name. 

(2)  Hitherto  Fir  and  Spruce  have  been  so  cheap  that  there  has  l)een 
no  necessit}^  for  using  Hemlock. 

(3)  Hemlock  is  heavy  when  green  and  apt  to  give  trou])le  in  driving 
and  in  ponds. 

To  overcome  the  prejudice  against  the  name  will  be  diihcult,  for  to 
introduce  an  unknown  timber  to  the  market  usualh'^  requires  years. 
The  practice  of  selling  Hemlock  as  Fir  when  manufactured  into  floor- 
ing, siding,  and  dimension  stufi',  and  as  Spruce  in  the  form  of  box- 
shooks  and  woodenware,  has  grave  drawbacks.  If  detected,  as  he 
frequently  must  be,  the  mill  man  must  either  lose  a  customer  or  bring 
satisfactor}^  proof  of  the  excellence  of  the  Hemlock.  If  he  is  able  to 
accomplish  the  latter,  he  might  as  well  have  done  so  originalh'  and  the 
problem  would  thus  have  been  solved.  A  mill  which  makes  the  substi- 
tution also  furnishes  a  weapon  of  revenge  to  rivals  and  to  employees 
with  a  grievance.  It  works  a  hardship  to  timber  owners ;  for,  with 
no  recognized  price  for  the  timber,  they  are  at  the  mercy  of  the  mills. 
Some  individuals  have  decided  that,  as  the  name  is  the  drawback,  it 
should  be  changed;  and  an  attempt  has  been  made  to  introduce  Hem- 
lock as  Alaska  Pine.  This  has  been  successful  to  some  extent,  and  if 
it  had  been  attempted  earlier  might  have  solved  the  problem. 

The  second  reason  no  longer  exists.  The  standing  timljer  of  the 
Northwest  is  going  into  the  hands  of  large  holders,  either  mill  compa- 
nies or  speculative  svndicates,  and  the  day  of  the  small  logger,  who 
moved  from  claim  to  claim,  taking  only  the  best  timber,  will  soon  be 
over.  Under  the  old  system,  when  the  logger  bought  the  stumpage, 
he  found  it  most  profitable  to  take  only  the  best  Fir  and  leave  a  fair 
merchantable  grade  uncut.  An  apparentl}"  unlimited  supply  enabled 
him  to  contimie  this  wasteful  system.  Under  such  conditions  it  was 
not  surprising  that  Hemlock  was  neglected.  As  a  rule,  it  furnishes 
less  clear  lumber  than  Fir,  and  when  only  the  best  of  the  latter  species 
was  taken  at  a  cost  to  the  mill  but  little  more  than  that  of  logging  it, 
the  utilization  of  Hemlock  was  out  of  the  question.  It  was  never 
cruised,  and  was  left  as  entirel}^  unconsidered  in  the  buying  and  selling 
of  timber  land  as  though  it  did  not  exist.  Now,  however,  it  is  becom- 
ing more  and  more  the  rule  for  timber  to  be  cut  by  its  owner,  or,  if 
not,  to  be  sold  by  the  acre,  and  it  is  to  the  interest  of  the  logger  to  cut 
all  he  can  from  the  land.  In  the  case  of  Fir,  lower  stumps  and  shorter 
tops  are  put  on  the  landing  which  would  not  have  been  looked  at  ten 
or  even  five  years  ago.  The  owner  also  realizes  that  a  log  of  Hemlock 
used  is  a  Fir  log  saved,  and  the  only  question  is  how  to  dispose  of  it. 


26  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

The  third  objection  will  ))e  discussed  under  the  head  of  kimbering. 
There  is  little  doubt  that  if  Hemlock  logs  brought  $6  a  thousand,  even 
the  heavy  butts  would  tind  their  way  to  market. 

ACCESSIBILITY. 

A  restricted  home  demand  and  remoteness  from  other  markets  are 
the  chief  difficulties  before  the  lumber  manufacturer  in  Oregon  and 
Washington.  Although  timber  is  cheap,  labor  is  high,  and  to  sell  his 
lumber  he  must  place  the  price  so  little  above  the  cost  of  logging  and 
manufacture  that  the  business  is  one  of  uncertainty  and  slender  profit. 
The  result  is  that  although  lumbering  is  carried  on  upon  an  immense 
scale,  the  State  is  being  denuded  of  its  timber  with  little  profit  beyond 
the  employment  of  the  men  engaged  in  producing  the  lumber.  The 
owner  gets  little  for  his  timber,  and  the  mill  man  receives  an  income 
trilling  when  compared  wnth  his  investment  and  risk. 

The  reason  for  this  is  the  cost  of  transportation.  The  manufacturer 
is  obliged  to  depend  upon  the  foreign  cargo  trade,  the  Eastern  market 
accessible  by  rail,  and  locally  upon  Alaska  and  California.  The  latter 
is  the  dumping  ground  for  side  and  common  lumber  which  can  not  be 
profitably  shipped  a  long  distance.  The  cargo  trade  is  peculiar  in  that 
the  market  is  fairly  steady  and  no  great  energy  in  pushing  the  product 
is  required,  but  it  is  governed  very  largely  bj^  ocean  freight  rates. 
If  grain  be  moving  the  lumber  shipper  will  find  it  impossible  to 
charter  a  vessel.  Owners  dislike  to  load  lumber,  both  because  it  is  sup- 
posed to  be  bad  for  the  ship  and  because  it  often  takes  her  to  a  port 
which  furnishes  no  return  cargo.  If,  on  the  other  hand,  the  prospect 
for  grain  on  the  Pacific  coast  is  bad,  ships  do  not  come  there  at  all 
unless  under  charters  which  fully  recompense  them.  The  effect  is  that 
when  rates  are  favorable  the  mills  accept  all  the  orders  they  can  secure, 
make  charters  regardless  of  possible  forfeit  through  delay,  and  run 
day  and  night,  piling  up  iumiense  amounts  of  nearly  unsalable  lumlier. 
When  matters  turn  the  other  way,  the  mills  may  run  for  months  at  a 
loss  or  with  little  profit  so  far  as  the  cargo  trade  is  concerned. 

The  following  freight  rates  on  lumber  from  the  northern  Pacific 
coast  ports  to  foreign  ports,  for  September,  1899,  and  September, 
1900,  are  quoted  from  the  San  Francisco  Commercial  News: 

Table  2. — Freight  rates  on  lumber  from  northern  Pacific  coast  ports  to  foreign  2)orts. 
RATE  PER  1,000  FEET,  SEPTEMBER,  1899. 

From  Puget  Sound  to — 

Sydney,  New  South  Wales $n.  25  to  $n.  75 

Melbourne  or  Adelaide 13. 12  to    13.  13 

Port  Pirie,  Australia 12.  .50  to    12.81 

Freeman  tie,  West  Australia 15.  93  to    16.  25 

Geraldton,  West  Aust-ralia 16.  25  to    16.  56 


MANUFACTURING    PROBLEMS.  27 

From  Puget  Sound  to — 

West  coast  South  America: 

Pisaqua  range $12. 81  to  $13. 12 

Callao  range 13. 12  to  13. 43 

Buenos  Ayres 13.  75  to  15.00 

Shanghai 13.  43  to  13.  75 

Kiaochow 13.  75  to  14.  06 

Japan 12.  50  to  12.81 

South  Africa 15.  62  to  16.  25 

United  Kingdom 17.  50  to  18.12 

Vladivostok 12.  50  to  12.  81 

RATE  PER  1,000  FEET,  SEPTEMBER,  1900. 

From  northern  Pacific  coast  ports  to— 

Sydney,  New  South  Wales $13. 12 

Melbourne  or  Adelaide 15.  00 

Port  Pirie,  Australia $14. 37  to    15.  00 

Freemantle,  West  Australia 17. 50 

Geraldton,  West  Australia 17.  81 

West  coast  South  America: 

Pisaqua  range 15.  62  to    15.  93 

Callao  direct 15.  31 

Buenos  Ayres 17.  50  to    17.  81 

Shanghai 16. 25 

Kiaochow 17.  50 

Nagasaki,  Japan 15.  00 

South  Africa 18. 12  to    18.  75 

United  Kingdom 21.  25 

Vladivostok 16.  25 

Rail  trade  with  the  East  is  affected  by  a  more  fluctuating-  market 
and  }\y  vig-orous  competition,  but  is  also  regulated  almost  wholh'  by 
the  cost  of  transportation.  Except  for  the  business  in  spars  and  heavy 
timbers,  which  are  obtainable  only  on  the  Pacific  coast,  the  eastern 
limit  of  trade  'is  that  point  to  which  Oregon  and  Washington  lumber 
can  be  delivered  more  cheaply  than  Southern  or  Northern  Pine.  The 
rate  on  Fir  lumber  from  Puget  Sound  and  Oregon  at  present  is- 

Table  3.— Railroad  rates  on  Fir  lumber  from  Puget  Sound  and  Oregon,  per  100  pounds. 


Helena $0.  35 

St.  Paul 40 

Chicago 50 

St.  Louis 52i 


Pittsburg $0. 65 

New  York 73 

Boston 75 


Lumber  other  than  Fir  is,  as  a  rule,  10  cents  less  per  hundred 
pounds.  This  at  present  applies  only  to  Spruce  and  Cedar,  since  these 
are  the  only  other  kinds  which  are  shipped. 

With  the  cost  of  logs  at  about  ^0  and  of  manufacturing  at  $;8.50  per 
1,000  feet  B.  M.  these  freight  rates  allow  of  little  shipping  of  timber 
from  Avest  of  the  Rockies,  although  there  is  a  prospect  that  satisfactory 
rates  will  soon  be  granted  to  Missouri  River  points.     The  bulk  of  the 


^5  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

lumber  shipped  to  these  points  is  for  building  purposes,  for  which 
Western  Hemlock  is  thoroughly  satisfiictory.  Since  dry  Hemlock 
(rough)  weighs  but  2,240  pounds  per  1,000  feet  B.  M.,  and  Fir  weighs 
3,00<)  pounds,  the  theoretical  saving  in  freight  on  kiln-dried  grades 
would  be  nearly  one-fourth.  The  arbitrary  weights  accepted  by  the 
railway  companies  for  the  various  grades  of  Fir  might  conflict  some- 
what with  this  comparison,  but  the  advantage  for  long  hauls  in  a 
decrease  in  weight  of  20  per  cent  remains  indisputable.  The  ditfer- 
ence  in  the  weight  of  air-dried  stock  of  these  two  kinds  may  be  less, 
since  Hemlock  is  slow  to  dry  and  heavv  when  green,  but  with  proper 
care  it  would  still  be  considerable.  Generally  speaking.  Hemlock  lum- 
ber will  probably  be  sold  in  the  Missouri  region  from  $2  to  ^3  cheaper 
per  1,000  feet  B.  M.  than  Fir  on  account  of  saving  in  freight  alone. 

LUMBERING. 

With  a  few  exceptions,  it  is  only  as  skid  timber  that  Hemlock  enters 
the  logger's  calculations.  These  exceptions  are  where  mills  log  their 
own  lands,  where  small  orders  for  box  lumber  or  pulpwood  are  received, 
or  where  the  Hemlock  is  unusually  good.  In  all  cases  it  is  put  in  as  a 
side  product  with  a  much  larger  quantity  of  Fir,  for  no  logging  is  done 
in  approximately  pure  Hemlock  stands. 

So  far  as  Hemlock  logs  can  be  quoted  at  all,  they  bring  about  $1:.50 
per  1,000  feet  B.  M.  for  the  largest  and  clearest,  no  others  being 
handled.  Fir  of  the  same  quality  is  worth  $6  to  ^8.  Most  frequently 
the  Hemlock  logs  are  not  classed  as  Hemlock,  but  are  put  in  with  the 
Fir  and  scaled  at  the  option  of  the  buyer  as  first  or  second  grade  Fir. 
A  few  camps  put  in  from  four  to  five  logs  a  day,  cutting  only  those 
they  are  sure  will  he  accepted  at  the  price  of  first-grade  Fir.  To  sum 
up,  the  demand  is  so  small  and  uncertain  that  the  logger  handles  Hem- 
lock only  in  a  desultor}^  and  uns3'stematic  vfay. 

As  a  rule,  there  is  little  profit  in  logging  on  Puget  Sound  for  less 
than  §5  a  thousand,  and  it  actually  costs  many  Red  Fir  camps  $5.50  to 
deliver  their  logs  at  the  mill.  On  Grays  Harbor  and  the  Columbia 
River  the  cost  is  a  little  lower.  It  is  idle  to  attempt  to  state  definitely 
the  cost  or  profit  of  lumbering,  since  it  varies  from  a  net  gain  of  $1  a 
thousand  to  losses  resulting  in  bankruptcy;  but  the  following  table 
gives  a  rough  average  of  the  cost  of  lumbering  1,000  feet  at  Puget 
Sound  camps: 

Table  4. — Average  cost  of  lumbering  per  1,000  feet  at  Puget  t'^ovnd  camps. 


Stumpage SI .  00 

Labor 2.  50 

Engines,  line,  and  road 1.  00 

Haul  to  mill  1/00 

Total 5. 50 


Average  i)rice  of  logs §6. 00 

Cost 5.50 


Profit 50 


LUMBERINO.  29 

There  i.s  apt  to  be  considerable  variation  in  the  items  of  expense. 
Timber  lying  on  streams  may  bring-  $1.50  stumpage;  that  accessible 
only  b}^  rail  is  cheaper,  but  the  cost  of  transportation  often  reaches 
$1.50.  Estimates  for  the  cost  of  engines,  line,  and  road  var}^  from  50 
cents  to  $1  per  1,000  feet  B.  M.,  but  probably  the  latter  figure  is  more 
nearly  correct.  The  scarcity  of  accessible  timber  makes  private  log- 
ging roads  necessary  in  most  instances,  and  these  cost  from  $5,000  to 
$10,000  a  mile.  The  expense  for  railroad  per  1,000  feet  B.  M.  depends 
upon  the  amount  of  timber  rendered  available  and  is  exceedingly  vari- 
able. The  length  of  the  haul  and  the  character  of  the  ground  make  a 
considerable  variation  in  the  outla}'  for  wire  rope.  The  following 
table,  based  upon  an  actual  paj^  roll,  shows  the  cost  of  operations  in  a 
camp  which  ships  logs  ]\v  rail  and  water  to  a  distant  mill: 

Table  o.— Cost  per  thousand  feet. 

Labor  getting  logs  tcj  car S2.  50 

Shipping  to  boom 1 .  30 

Booming  and  rafting 08 

Scaling , 035 

Returning  boomsticky 07 

Mill  (lis!Count 11 

Wear  on  outfit 50 

Total 4.  595 

This  is  exclusive  of  stumpage,  which  in  this  instance  was  50  cents 
per  1,000  feet  B.  M.,  the  timber  having  been  purchased  several  years 
ago.     The  same  timber  is  now  worth  about  $1. 

It  would  thus  appear  that  with  Hemlock  logs  at  $4.50,  or  even  $5, 
there  is  little  profit  in  logging  them.  It  is  to  be  rememliered,  how- 
ever, that  a  portion  of  the  expense  of  lumbering,  such  as  the  cost  of 
a  railroad,  is  necessary  in  order  to  lumber  the  Fir,  and  thus  can  not 
be  charged  altogether  against  the  Hemlock;  and  when,  as  is  often  the 
case,  no  account  was  taken  of  Hemlock  when  the  timber  was  pur- 
chased, the  cost  of  stumpage  is  also  eliminated. 

The  difliculty  of  driving  butt  logs,  because  of  their  weight,  deters 
many  lumbermen  from  handling  Hemlock.  This  difliculty  varies 
greatly,  and  in  many  localities  is  of  no  importance.  Hemlock  near 
the  coast  is  heavier  when  green  than  the  Hemlock  of  the  uplands,  and, 
since  river  driving  is  also  commoner  there,  gives  the  most  trouble. 
Were  the  demand  regular  and  extensive,  however,  means  of  avoiding 
this  difficulty  would  doubtless  be  devised.  A  market  for  Hemlock 
bark  would  probably  make  it  profitable  to  peel  the  logs  in  summer, 
and  they  would  then  dry  out  sufliciently  to  be  driven  successfully. 
There  would  then,  however,  be  the  danger  from  the  l)oring-beetles, 
which  have  already  been  mentioned. 


30  THE    WESTEKN    HEMLOCK. 

Hemlock,  unless  cut  with  the  Fir,  i.s  usually  lost.  Fire  is  practically 
certain  to  run  through  the  slashings.  The  thin  bark  of  the  Hemlock 
makes  a  severe  tire  fatal,  and  where  a  tree  is  only  slightly  scarred  the 
boring-beetle  is  almost  sure  to  attack  it.  With  its  shallow  root  system 
the  Hemlock  is  also  liable  to  be  blown  down  when  left  unprotected, 
and  even  the  drying  of  the  soil,  due  to  increased  light,  often  proves 
fatal. 

It  is  not  uncommon  for  5,000  to  25,000  feet  of  Hemlock  per  acre  to 
be  left  standing  on  land  from  which  the  Fir  has  been  removed.  Allow- 
ing a  stumpage  value  of  onh"  25  cents  per  thousand  feet,  this  represents 
a  loss  of  $1.25  to  f$0.25  an  acre.  Or,  putting  it  differently,  if  Hemlock 
gains  a  place  in  the  market,  it  will  raise  the  value  of  such  timber  from 
$1.25  to  $6.25  an  acre.  In  the  case  of  pure,  or  nearly  pure.  Hemlock, 
a  greater  increase  in  value  would  be  necessary  to  bring  about  the 
same  result,  for  there  would  be  no  logging  of  Fir  to  lower  the  cost  of 
logging  the  Hemlock.     (PI.  IX.) 

VOLUME  AND  YIELD,  FIRST-GROWTH  HEMLOCK. 

Scribner's  scale  has  been  used  in  all  volume  and  yield  tables  in  this 
report.  The  universal  custom  of  scaling  at  the  small  end  of  the  log 
has  been  followed,  although  the  scale  was  originally  intended  to  be 
applied  at  the  middle,  where  it  is  far  more  accurate.  The  prevailing 
practice  undervalues  large  logs,  and  it  is  probabh'  for  this  reason  that 
the  mills  secured  its  adoption;  but  a  return  to  the  correct  method  here 
would  result  only  in  confusion. 

The  data  for  Table  H,  which  gives  the  contents  of  standing  trees  in 
board  feet,  were  obtained  by  two  methods,  one  based  on  the  actual 
logging  practice  and  one  on  the  possible  merchanta))le  contents  of  the 
trees.  The  former  included  the  scaling  of  several  hundred  trees  as 
the}"  lay  in  the  slashings,  cut  into  logs  but  not  j^arded  out.  The  logs 
were  scaled  just  as  would  be  done  b}^  the  camp  or  mill  scaler,  except 
that  the  total  contents  of  each  tree  were  kept  separate.  In  this  way 
the  average  contents  of  trees  of  different  diameters  and  height  were 
found.  The  average  diameter  limit  in  the  tops  to  which  the  Hemlock 
was  cut  was  20.5  inches.  In  this  way  from  10  to  30  feet  of  merchant- 
able, and  sometimes  clear,  lumber  is  usually  left,  which  will  undoubt- 
edly be  used  when  Hemlock  is  better  appreciated.  The  same  trees 
were  therefore  also  scaled  to  a  point  16  inches  in  diameter  inside  the 
bark,  unless  the  crown  extended  below  thi.s  point,  when  the  merchant- 
able length  was  considered  to  end  at  the  first  large  green  branch. 
Table  6  gives  the  result  of  both  methods. 


33,   Bureau  of   Forestty,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agncultur. 


Fig.  1.— Second-growth  Red  Fir,  70  Years  Old,  Dryad,  Wash. 


i^'TPl 

£•<"/ "' 

vHB^  *•  p -nH^ 

H^F    ^ 

'^            l^-'f^ 

^r 

Mm 

/V            |^^-  ij^^ 

W' 

TWt  M 

i>^^ 

H^^rSrt^ 

^Ejf  ^ 

1 

■Hpi"y 

i»'**""'^J 

H^^^^^ 

l^^^&i^^l 

:Ji^BSi 

Fig.  2. -Mature  Red  Fir,  380  Years  Old;  Young  Hemlock  beneath, 
Black  Hills,  Washington. 


VOLUME    AND    YIELD,   FIRST-GROWTH    HEMLOCK. 


31 


Table  6. — Merchantable  length  and  content^;. 


Diameter 
breast- 
high. 

Average 

total 
height. 

Merchantable  length. 

Contents. 

In  prac- 
tice. 

Cutting  to 
16  inches. 

In  prac- 
tice. 

Cutting  to 
16  inches. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Boardfeet. 

Boardfeet. 

20 

135 

24 

240 

21 
22 
23 

140 
144 
148 

34 
43 
52 

350 
465 
580 

37 

5.50 

24 

152 

44 

60 

680 

700 

25 

156 

51 

68 

800 

825 

26 

159 

58 

74 

920 

955 

27 

162 

63 

80 

1,040 

1,090 

28 

166 

68 

84 

1,150 

1,230 

29 

168 

71 

87 

1,260 

1,365 

30 

171 

73 

89 

1,360 

1,490 

31 

174 

74 

91 

1,450 

1,605 

32 

176 

74 

92 

1,540 

1,715 

33 

178 

75 

93 

1,630 

1,820 

34 

181 

75 

93 

1,710 

1,925 

35 

183 

75 

94 

1,780 

2,030 

36 

185 

76 

95 

1,850 

2,135 

37 

187 

77 

96 

1,920 

2,245 

38 

189 

79 

97 

2,000 

2,360 

39 

191 

81 

98 

2,080 

2,480 

40 

193 

83 

101 

2,176 

2,605 

41 

194 

86 

103 

2,280 

2,735 

42 

196 

89 

106 

2,400 

2,870 

43 

198 

90 

109 

2,550 

3,010 

44 

199 

91 

112 

2,730 

3,160 

45 

200 

92 

115 

2,940 

3,320 

46 

202 

93 

119 

3,175 

3,490 

47 

203 

94 

123 

3,430 

3, 670 

48 

205 

95 

126 

3,680 

3,870 

49 

206 

96 

131 

3,920 

4,090 

50 

208 

97 

135 

4,155 

4,310 

In  this  table  small  trees  appear  to  scale  much  too  high  in  proportion 
to  the  larger  ones.  This  is  because  only  unusually  tall  and  good  trees 
of  the  smaller  diameters  are  taken  at  all,  and  their  average  is  relatively 
high,  while  above  30  inches  practically  all  sound  trees  are  cut. 

To  the  logger  who  profits  onl}^  on  the  number  of  feet  he  sells, 
Table  6  shows  that  his  possible  gain  in  feet,  board  measure,  by  cutting 
higher  into  the  tops  is  small,  even  assuming  he  has  a  market  for  tim- 
ber of  the  quality  he  would  obtain  thereby.  A  mill  cutting  its  own 
timber  would  gain  much  more,  for  the  inconsistency  of  the  log  scale 
is  such  that  the  table  does  not  show  the  actual  difference  in  the  amount 
of  wood  saved  by  cutting  to  10  inches.  For  example,  a  log  40  feet 
long  and  16  inches  in  diameter  at  the  small  end,  scaled  by  the  Scribner 
Rule,  contains  396  board  feet.  If  10  feet  are  cut  off  the  small  end  of 
the  log,  allowing  2  inches  taper  for  this  distance,  the  log  will  be  30 
feet  by  18  inches,  and  will  scale  400  board  feet,  an  apparent  gain  of  4 
feet  by  throwing  away  a  log  10  feet  by  16  inches.     In  sawing  long 


32 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


logs  this  discrepancy  is  iu  part  justified  by  the  loss  in  slabs,  but  there 
is  no  question  but  that  on  the  whole  a  mill  would  gain  more  by  cutting 
to  a  16-inch  limit  than  is  shown  by  Table  6.  The  average  difference  in 
the  merchantable  length  between  cutting  to  16  inches  in  the  top  and 
cutting  as  it  is  now  done  is  shown  to  be  from  15  to  20  feet. 

The  following  table  gives,  on  a  basis  of  diameter  breasthigh,  the 
total  height,  length  of  crown,  and  merchantable  length  of  Hemlock 
grown  under  cover  and  standing  free: 


Tablk 


■Tdtal  l(i'i(/lit,  lengtJt  of  crown,  and  merchantable  length. 


Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Total 
height. 


13.5.0 
140.0 
144.0 
148.0 
152.0 
1.56.0 
159.0 
162.5 
166.0 
168. 5 
171.5 
174.0 
176.5 
178.5 
181.0 
183.0 
185.0 
187.0 
189.0 
191.0 
193.0 
194. 5 
196.0 
198.0 
199.0 


Length 
of  crown. 


79.0 
80.0 
Sl.O 
82.0 
83.0 
84.0 
85.0 
86.0 
86.5 


91.0 
91.5 
92.0 
92. 5 
93.0 
93.5 
94.0 
94.5 
9.5.0 


Mer- 
chant- 
able 
length 
cut. 


Standing  free. 


Total 
height. 


Feet. 
59.0 
67.0 
75.0 
83.0 
90.0 
97.0 
104.0 
110.0 
116.0 
121.0 
126.0 
131.0 
135. 0 
140.0 
144.0 
148. 0 
152.0 
156.0 
159.0 
163.0 
166.0 
169.0 
171.0 
174.0 
176.0 
178. 0 
181.0 
184. 0 
186.0 
188.0 
190.0 
191.5 
194.0 
196.0 
198.0 
200.0 
202.0 


Feet. 
21.0 
24.0 
29.0 
34.0 

43.5 

48.0 
52.0 
'55.5 
58.0 
60.5 
63.0 
64.5 
66.5 
68.0 
69.0 
70.5 
72.0 
73.0 
74.0 
75.0 
76.0 
76.5 
77.0 
77.5 
78.0 

79.5 
80.0 
80.5 
81.0 
81.0 
81.5 
82.0 
82.5 
83.0 
83. 0 


Mer- 
chant- 
able 
length 
cut. 


VOLUME    AND    YIELD,   FIRST-GROWTH    HEMLOCK. 


33 


The  following'  table  gives,  on  a  basis  of  diameter  breasthigh,  the 
percentage  of  the  total  volume  of  wood  and  ])ark  of  Hemlock,  exclud- 
ing branches,  which  is  merchantable  under  present  logging  methods: 

Table  8. —  Utilization  under  present  logging  methods. 


Diameter 
breast 
high, 


Inches. 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 


Mer- 
chant- 
ible  con- 
tents. 


Per  cent. 
45 
49 
53 
55 
58 


Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Mer- 
chant- 
able con- 
tents. 


Per  cent. 
65 
65 
65.5 


Diameter 
breast 
high. 


Incites. 
42 
43 
44 
45 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 


Mer- 
chant- 
ible  con- 
tents. 


•  cent. 
73 


The  following  table  gives  for  Hemlock,  on  a  basis  of  diameter 
breasthigh,  the  length  of  that  part  of  the  stem,  including  the  stump, 
which  will  yield  clear  lumber,  according  to  market  specifications: 

Table  No.  9 — Diameter  and  length  of  stem  yielding  clear  lumber. 


Diameter 

breast- 
high. 

Yielding 

clear 
lumber. 

Diameter  Yielding 
breast-        clear 
high.       lumber. 

Diameter 
breast- 
high. 

Yielding 

clear 
lumber. 

Inches. 

Feet. 

Iriches. 

Feet. 

Inches. 

Peel. 

20 

27 

27 

46 

!           31 

56 

21 

31 

28 

48 

!           35 

56 

22 

34 

29 

50 

1            36 

57 

23 

37 

30 

51 

37 

58 

24 

40 

31 

52 

38 

59 

25 

42 

32 

53 

39 

60 

26 

44 

33 

54 

40 

61 

Since  the  utilization  of  Hemlock  where  it  occurs  in  mixture  with 
Fir  is  of  chief  importance  at  present,  no  consideration  is  given  here 
to  the  utilization  of  pure  stands  of  mature  Hemlock.  The  stand  is 
given  for  localities  where  logging  is  most  active  and  represents  differ- 
ent types  of  the  mixtures  of  Fir  and  Hemlock  which  form  the  larger 
part  of  the  commercial  forests  of  the  Pacific  Northwest.  The  percent- 
age of  Hemlock  in  the  merchantable  stand  varies  from  28  per  cent  at 
Orting  to  59  per  cent  at  Buckley.  With  Wilkcson  these  localities  may 
be  taken  as  a  fair  index  to  the  stand  of  Hemlock  on  the  w^estern  foot- 
hills of  the  Cascades,  where  the  altitude  is  from  800  to  1,500  feet  and 
the  annual  rainfall  about  50  to  60  inches.  The  other  places  near  which 
measurements  of  the  stand  were  made  were  Hoquiani  and  Elma  in 
Chehalis  County,  near  the  coa.st:  Little  Rock  in  Thurston  County,  and 
22020— No.  33—02 3 


34 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


Matlock  in  Mason  County.  It  will  be  noticed  that  the  percentage  of 
Hemlock  is  highest  on  the  coast  and  on  the  foothills,  which  is  in  pro- 
portion to  the  increase  in  rainfall. 

The  data  for  estimating  the  stand  given  in  the  following  tables  were 
obtained  by  the  strip  valuation  survey  method,  which  is  in  general 
use  by  the  Bureau  of  Forestry.  Strips  1  chain  {66  feet)  wide  and  10 
chains  long  to  the  acre  were  run  in  several  directions  through  the  forest 
to  be  estimated,  and  all  trees  on  these  strips  were  counted  and  meas- 
ured at  breastheight  ])y  calipers,  or  with  a  measuring  tape,  a  separate 
talh'  being  kept  for  each  acre.  At  Orting,  for  example,  the  camps  of 
the  St.  Paul  and  Tacoma  Lumber  Company  were  taken  as  headquarters, 
and  the  valuation  survey  parties  folloAved  compass  courses  radiating 
from  the  camps  as  a  center,  like  spokes  from  the  hub  of  a  wheel.  Since 
eight  of  these  strips  make  a  mile,  the  325  acres  measured  at  Orting  aggre- 
gate a  strip  over  40  miles  long  and  66  feet  wide.  The  contents  of  the 
trees  in  these  strips  were  computed  from  the  volume  tables,  constructed 
from  the  actual  scale  of  felled  trees.  By  this  system  the  stand  on  large 
areas  can  be  determined  with  great  accuracy  and  at  small  expense. 

All  trees  20  inches  and  over  in  diameter  breasthigh  were  scaled, 
which  in  most  instances  probably  gives  a  trifle  higher  total  stand  than 
would  actuall}'  be  cut  at  present,  since  trees  less  than  2  feet  are  now 
seldom  taken.  No  attempt  Avas  made  to  flgure  locally  the  cull  due  to 
unsoundness,  for  it  is  so  A^ariable  that  only  confusion  would  result. 
All  living  trees  20  inches  and  over  in  diameter  were  scaled,  whether 
defective  or  not,  and  a  cull  of  20  per  cent  was  deducted  for  crooked, 
scrubby,  or  otherwise  poor  trees. 

The  number  of  acres  actually  measured  in  each  locality  is  given  at 
the  head  of  each  table.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  these  were 
carefully  distributed  over  a  large  area  and  so  far  as  the  number  and 
size  of  the  trees  are  concerned  represent  the  stand  with  very  fair  accu- 
racy. The  actual  merchantable  yield  in  board  feet  is  necessarily 
dependent  upon  the  standard  in  cutting.  The  yield  of  bark  is  com- 
puted for  merchantable  Hemlock  only  and  assumes  that  the  trees  will 
be  peeled  to  a  point  17  inches  in  diameter  in  the  tops. 

Table  10. — Stand  and  yield  per  acre  In  typical  localities. 

WILKESON  (•100-YEAR-OLD  STAND.) 

[Average  of  35  acres.] 


Number  of  trees— 

Average    diameter 
breasthigh  of  trees— 

Maxi- 
mum di- 
ameter 
breast- 
high. 

Yield  of  trees  20 
inches  and  over 

Specie.*;. 

6  inches 

and  over 

in  diameter 

breasthigh. 

20  inches 

and  over 

in  diameter 

breasthigh. 

•20  inches 

and  over 

in  diameter 

breasthigh. 

6  to  19 

inches  in 

diameter 

breasthigh. 

'  breasthigh. 

Lumber. 

Bark. 

Hemlocli 

80.3 
11.6 
6.0 

18. 85 
11.54 
5.74 

Inchrs. 
30.0 
66.0 
.52. 0 

Inclits. 
9.5 
12.0 
13.3 

Inches. 
64 
118 
127 

Bd.ft. 
20,508 
71,065 
9. 533 

Cords. 
4.53 

Red  Fir 

Total 

97.9 

36. 13 

4.5.0 

" 

127       101.106 

4. 53 

VOLUME    AND    YIELD,    FIRST-GROWTH    HEMLOCK. 


35 


Table  10. — Stand  and  yield  per  acre  in  typical  localities — Continued. 

BUCKLEY  (410-YEAR-OLD  STAND). 

[Average  of  131  acres.] 


Niimhpr  of  trees—        Average    diameter 
isumber  of  trees-      I   ^reasthigh  of  trees- 


6  inches      20  inches  |   20  inches 

and  over  |   and  over   |   and  over 

in diameteriin  diameterin  diameter 

breasthigh.  breasthigh.ibreasthigh. 


6  to  19 
inches  in 
diameter 
breasthigh, 


Maxi- 
mum di- 
ameter 
breast- 
high. 


Y'ield  of  trees  20 

inches  and  over 

in  diameter 

breasthigh. 


Lumber.    Bark. 


Hemlock  . . 

Red  Fir 

Others  

Total 


84.34 
10.87 
6.12 


Inches. 
20.48  33.5 

10.32  67.0 

3.7  46.9 


Inches. 
10.3 
6.7 
11.5 


Inches. 
86 
116 

102 


100.82 


34.5 


47.4 


10.3 


Sd./t. 
27, 361 
67, 180 
5, 254 


,795 


Cords. 
6.46 


ORTING  (250-YEAR-OLD  STAND.) 
[Average  of  325  acres.] 


ELMA  (280- YEAR-OLD  STAND.) 
[Average  of  87  acres.] 


MATLOCK  (260-YEAR-OLD  STAND.) 
[Average  of  297  acres.] 


LITTLE  ROCK  (390-YEAR-OLD  STAND.) 
[Average  of  61  acres.] 


Hemlock 

43.78 
29.35 
19.89 

10.86 
24.08 
11.48 

27.8 
40.0 
.37.0 

10.1 
14.4 
11.8 

92 
116 

228 

9,800 
48,080 
9,809 

2  06 

Red  Fir 

Others                

Total 

93.0 

46.4 

37.0 

10.9 

228 

67, 689 

•'  06 

Hemlock 

6L7 
1.5.3 

.8 
6.6 

7.32 

14.  .54 

.54 

4.15 

28.1 
46.0 
.55. 1 
38.0 

10.3 
14.1 
12.4 
13.4 

.50 
114 
114 
108 

6,798 
43,490 
2, 732 
6,972 

1  64 

Red  Fir 

Spruce 

Cedar 

84.4 

26. 55 

40.0 

12.6 

'" 

59,992           1-64 

Hemlock 

....i           47.73 

10.09 
29. 31 

30.7 

40.0 
47.3 

11.1 
16.2 
11.3 

56 

11,485 
.58,525 
1,960 

2.53 

Others  

■-'             '■' 

132 

Total 

. . . . '            87. 88 

! 

40.78 

38.2 

12. 2 

132  j 

71,970 

2.53 

Hemlock 

Red  Fir 

46.2 
23.  ,S 
10.1 

14.41 
23. 85 
4.34 

29.4 
41.0 
3.5.0 

U.2 
1.5.1 

•56 
106 
54 

14,986 
,50, 480 
.5,902 

3.31 

Total 

80. 1                 42. 6 

30.2 

13.1 

106 

71,368 

3.31 

HOQUIAM   (400-YEAR-OLD  STAND.) 
[Average  of  89  acres.] 

Hemlock 

50.2 
9.83 
l.ls 
1.5 

10.09 
9.77 
1.01 
1.37 

34.3                 11.2 
65. 5                13. 1 
63.0  !              11.4 
56.5                13.3 

120 
112 
114 

13, 972 
59, 160 
6, 194 
.5,370 

3.42 

RedFir               

Spruce 

Cedar 

62.7 

22.24 

50.7  1             12.3 

120 

84,696 

3.12 

36 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


For  fairer  comparison  the  merchantable  stand  of  Red  Fir  given  in  the 
tables  was  computed  according-  to  the  average  diameter  limit  to  which 
the  Red  Fir  is  cut  throughout  the  State,  and  not,  unless  through  coin- 
cidence, according  to  local  practice.  Except  in  the  case  of  pile  or 
spar  camps  and  of  a  few  small  concerns  supplying  tie  mills,  there  is  no 
great  variation  in  the  diameter  limit  to  which  Red  Fir  is  cut  on  the 
stump,  l^sualh'  a  forest  stand  in  Avhich  most  of  the  trees  are  not  over 
3  feet  in  diameter  is  not  considered  merchantable  at  all.  A  common 
standard  considers  no  tree  merchantable  which  will  not  cut  two  24-foot 
logs,  each  of  which  will  square  16  inches.  The  distance  into  the  top 
to  which  the  tree  is  utilized  varies  greatly,  however.  Since  the  cost 
of  logging,  or  of  transportation,  the  qualit}'  of  timber,  or  the  demand 
for  logs  of  certain  lengths,  may  influence  the  amount  taken  out  of  a 
tree  of  a  given  diameter,  it  follows  that  each  camp  has  its  own  standard, 
and  this  standard  may  fluctuate. 

The  following  table  shows  the  diameter  inside  the  bark  in  the  top  to 
which  Red  Fir  was  being  cut  in  several  of  the  largest  camps  in  Wash- 
ington at  the  time  they  were  visited  by  the  agents  of  the  Bureau  of 
Forestry : 

Table  11. — Diameter  limit  in  tops. 


Buckley 

Orting 

Matlock 

Elma 

Little  Rock 

Hoquiam 

Average 


17.5 

25.7 

26.8 

27.4 

33.3 

It  is  evident,  from  the  above  table,  that  volume  tables  made  at  Ort- 
ing and  Hoquiam  would  produce  widely  different  results  if  applied  to 
the  same  stand. 

LOGGED-OFF  LANDS. 

Hitherto  the  problem  of  dealing  with  loggcd-oft'  land  has  been  given 
uniform  treatment  by  Western  lumbermen.  It  has  been  the  custom  to 
sell  the  land  which  had  value  for  agriculture  for  what  it  would  bring, 
especially  for  grazing,  and  to  abandon  the  rest.  Large  tracts  of 
logged-off"  land  have  been  sold  for  40  cents  an  acre.  Occasionally  an 
owner  pays  taxes  on  such  property,  but  he  is  the  exception,  and  often 
has  some  peculiar  motive  for  doing  so,  such  as  a  desire  to  show  a  large 
acreage.     Very  few  expect  to  log  a  second  time. 

Excessive  taxation  in  the  United  States  is  one  of  the  greatest  obstacles 
to  conservative  forest  management   by  private  owners.     In  western 


LOGGED-OFF    LANDS. 


37 


Washington,  cut-over  lands,  valuable  for  the  production  of  timber 
alone,  are  assessed  at  a  value  of  from  $1  to  $5  an  acre,  at  a  combined 
countj^  and  State  rate  of  from  15  to  30  mills  on  the  dollar.  Assessors 
may  attempt  to  make  a  more  reasonable  adjustment,  but  are  often  pre- 
vented from  doing  so  by  the  demand  of  the  State  for  a  revenue  from 
these  lands  far  out  of  proportion  to  that  required  from  other  property. 
The  State  takes  no  account  of  the  annual  decrease  of  standing  timber 
from  cutting,  and  continues  to  levy  the  same  tax,  although  it  must  be 
borne  b}^  less  valuable  land  each  year.  In  Chehalis  County  alone 
10,000  acres  are  annually  cut  over,  yet  the  tax  rate  is  unchanged. 
An  attempt  was  made  to  get  logged-off  lands  placed  in  a  separate 
lightly  taxed  class,  and  to  have  the  burden  divided  among  other  classes 
of  property,  but  it  failed. 

Calculating  logged-off  land  as  worth  $1  an  acre,  with  the  assess- 
ment at  $3  an  acre,  and  the  rate  at  2  cents,  the  cost  of  holding  a 
quarter  section  of  such  land  for  fifty  3^ ears  would  be  $1,742,  or  $10.90 
an  acre.  It  is  thus  evident  that  the  conmiunity  offers  little  encourage- 
ment to  the  timber  grower.  Under  such  conditions  few  men  will  hold 
logged-off  land.  The  effect  of  the  system  is  to  defeat  its  own  end. 
The  property  reverts  to  the  State  for  delinquent  taxes  and,  still  con- 
sidered worthless  and  wholly  unprotected,  it  is  burned  and  reburned 
until  it  becomes  a  desert.  The  gain  to  the  communit}'  would  be  much 
greater  were  the  land  assessed  at  50  cents  an  acre  and  the  tax  collected. 
Statements  furnished  by  the  assessors  of  several  timbered  counties  in 
Washington  show  the  amount  of  cut-over  land  which  has  been  abandoned 
to  be  as  follows: 

Table  12. — Amount  of  logged-off  I'lnds  ahandoncd. 


Assessed 

value 

of  standing 

timber 

per  acre. 


value  of 
logged-off 

land 
per  acre. 


I    Combined 
State,  county 
and  special 
tax  rate 
I     per  acre. 


land  aban- 
doned. 


Chehalis 

Clallam: 

Hemlock 

other  species. 

Clarke 

Jefferson 

King 

Pacific 

Pierce  

Skagit 

Whatcom 


J)oUars. 
S.OO-  9.00 


0. 00-10. 00 
3.  OO-IO.  00 
3.00-10.00 
2. 50-  5. 00 
4. 00-  6. 00 
3.00-10.00 
4.00-10.00 


IMkw. 
2.00 


1.00 

2.  .50-  5. 00 
1.00 
2.50 
1.25 

2. 00-  2. 25 
(^) 

2. 00-10. 00 


MilU. 


28 
20 
22-30 
20-30 
18 
16 


"  None  nominally  abandoned.    Much  delinquent. 

t"  None. 

«  None  at  present.    Indications  that  large  amount  will  be  abandoned. 

*  Information  wanting. 

e  Verv  little. 


38  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

The  laws  of  Washiiit^ton  prohibit  the  sale  of  ai^v  State  lands  for  less 
than  $10  an  acre;  therefore  the  large  and  increasino-  area  of  abandoned 
lands,  except  the  small  portion  which  may  become  valuable  for  farm- 
ing, must  continue  to  be  State  property  until  it  can  find  a  purchaser  at 
$10  who  is  willing  to  take  up  the  tax  burden  which  could  not  be  borne 
even  when  the  land  was  offered  for  $1.  This  area  must  therefore 
remaiTi  absoluteh'  unproductive,  nontaxpa\'ing,  and,  on  account  of 
fire,  a  menace  to  adjacent  standing  timber. 

So  deplorable  a  state  of  affairs  entails  far  more  than  financial  loss  to 
the  State  jind  its  inhabitants.  It  is  generally  admitted  that  the  exhaus- 
tion of  the  mature  timber  of  the  United  States  is  a  matter  of  but  one 
or  two  generations,  and  that  thereafter  second  growth  must  be  used  to 
supply  the  natural  needs.  It  is  the  Pacific  coast  region,  with  its  warm 
climate  and  heavy  rainfall,  which  promises  the  most  certain  and  rapid 
return  of  logged-off'  land  to  forest,  and  to  this  region  the  country  will 
naturall}'  turn  for  nuich  of  its  timber  supply  in  the  future.  With  the 
exception  of  the  Government  forest  reserves,  no  provision  is  being 
made  to  meet  this  demand,  and  for  this  condition  of  affairs  unwise 
taxation  is  largeh'  responsible. 

Over  the  larger  part  of  western  Oregon  and  Washington,  Red  Fir 
is  the  tree  which  takes  possession  of  burned-over  land,  and,  if  undis- 
turbed, it  does  so  almost  immediately.  It  is  at  present  the  most  val- 
uable timber  tree  of  the  region,  and  its  readiness  to  reforest  denuded 
land  seems  exceedingly  fortunate.  There  are,  however,  certain  regions 
in  which  there  is  practically  no  reproduction  of  Fir,  and  here  the  market 
future  of  Hemlock  will  fix  the  profit  of  growing  a  second  crop.  This 
is  largeh'  the  case  along  the  coast. 

The  present  practice  is  to  cut  all  good  Fir  and  Spruce  and  to  leave 
the  Hemlock  and  only  such  Fir  as  is  conky  or  otherwise  unsound  and 
hence  unable  to  play  an  important  part  in  reseeding  the  lumbered  area. 
(PI.  X,  fig.  1.)  There  is,  of  course,  the  adjacent  untouched  forest, 
which,  under  some  conditions,  would,  by  the  aid  of  the  wind,  seed  up 
openings  as  fast  as  they  might  be  made  by  ordinary  lumbering;  but 
here  the  Fir  bears  irregularly  and  scantily,  and  little  seed  is  produced. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  Hemlock,  which  is  left  untouched  in  the 
slashings  and  forms  a  large  part  of  the  neighboring  forest,  bears 
abundantly  ever}-  year.  Furthermore,  the  slashing  ma}'  escape  fire, 
in  which  case  Fir  seed  finds  an  unsuitable  seed  bed  and  is  shaded  too 
much  by  uncut  Hemlock  and  underbrush.  The  final  result  under  such 
conditions  is  a  dense  stand  of  Hendock,  often  some  Spruce,  but  only 
occasionally  a  Red  Fir.     (PI.  X,  fig.  2.) 

It  is  not  impossible  that  this  result  might  often  be  somewhat  modified 
by  judicious  burning.  While  many  loggers  prefer,  if  possible,  to 
avoid  tire  altogether,  there  are  two  arguments  for  a  contrary  course — 
safety  in  the  future  and  a  l)etter  chance  for  reproduction  of  Fir. 
There  remains  little  doubt  that  fire  after  logging  great!}'  assists  this 


33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agnculturi 


Fig.  1 .— Logged-off  Land,  Buckley,  Wash.    Hemlock  and  Diseased  Fir  left 
standing. 


Fig.  2. -Hemlock  left  after  Logging,  Enumclaw,  Wash.,  showing  Stumps  of 
Red  Fir. 


LOGGED-OFF    LANDS.  39 

species  to  reproduce  successful!}-.  If  lire  is  to  run,  it  is  usually  safer 
to  burn  at  that  time  in  the  spring-  when  the  slashing-  is  inflammable 
but  the  surrounding  woods  are  still  too  wet  to  be  in  danger  than  to 
allow  a  large  area  to  remain  unburiied  until  the  dr}'  season,  when  fire 
is  sure  to  be  destructive. 

In  the  coast  region,  owing  to  the  frequent  rains,  the  liurni ng  of  the 
slashings  as  a  precautionary  measure  is  not  so  necessary  as  it  is  inland. 
Therefore,  before  adopting  it  in  order  to  facilitate  the  reseeding  of 
Fir,  it  should  be  ascertained  whether  it  would  not  be  more  protitable  to 
give  up  Fir  altogether  and  make  che  most  of  the  Hemlock.  To  decide 
this  question  a  careful  stud}-  of  conditions  on  the  ground  is  necessary. 
The  amount  and  condition  of  young  Hemlock  must  be  excellent  in 
order  to  make  it  worth  preserving  should  there  be  a  chance  of  obtain- 
ing Fir  by  its  removal.  (PI.  X,  tig.  2.)  A  few  half-grown  trees  are 
of  little  value,  for  without  shade  they  will  not  clear  themselves  of 
branches.  (PI.  X,  Hg.  1.)  An  undergrowth  of  suppressed,  misshapen 
Hemlocks  a  few  feet  high,  such  as  is  often  seen  in  dense  timber,  is  not 
apt  to  make  a  healthy  growth.  In  fact,  the  sudden  advent  of  light 
often  destroys  Hemlock  which  has  grown  in  the  shade.  Where  such 
conditions  prevail,  and  if  the  Fir  in  the  vicinity  can  be  counted  on  to 
reproduce  itself  upon  the  logged-off  area,  it  is  unprolitable  to  adopt  a 
method  favorable  only  to  Hemlock, 

It  should  be  remembered,  however,  that,  where  the  ground  is  cov- 
ered by  a  foot  or  more  of  rotten  wood  and  humus,  fire  may  kill  the 
young  Hemlock  and  still  not  expose  the  soil  sufhciently  to  encourage 
germination  of  Fir.  Even  slightly  injured  Hemlock  is  worthless,  for 
it  is  almost  certain  to  be  attacked  by  borers.  Blazes,  fire  scorch,  and 
scars  from  rigging,  in  fact,  anything  which  deadens  a  small  portion  of 
the  bark,  encourages  their  entrance.  Other  insects  and  parasites 
should  also  be  remembered.  In  a  region  where  such  enemies  of  Hem- 
lock as  black  streak,  borers,  and  Arceuthobium  are  prevalent,  it 
would  be  wise  to  destroy  a  fair  growth  of  Hemlock  for  the  sake  of  a 
much  younger  stand  of  the  more  hardy  Fir. 

To  sum  up,  where  Fir  is  a  poor  seeder  and  where  it  is  desirable  to 
prevent  fire  entirely  from  the  first,  there  is  little  use  in  trying  to  get 
anything  but  Hemlock  for  a  second  crop,  and  in  such  a  case  there  is 
nothing  to  do  except  to  protect  the  slashing  from  fire.  Where  the  Fir 
left  standing  is  vigorous  enough  to  .seed  freely  and  a  fairly  clean  burn 
can  be  secured,  it  would  often  seem  the  best  policy  to  fire  the  slashing 
in  the  spring.  It  is  the  purpose  of  this  report,  however,  to  deal  not 
with  Red  Fir  problems,  but  with  those  of  regions  in  which  reproduc- 
tion of  Red  Fir  is  impracticable.  Assuming,  then,  that  from  observa- 
tion the  owner  of.  timber  land  is  satisfied  that  the  second  growth  will 
be  chiefly  of  Hemlock,  he  will  naturally  wish  to  know  how  long  it  will 
be  before  it  will  produce  merchantable  timber,  what  its  value  will  be, 
and  how  much  it  will  have  cost  him.     In  order  to  answer  these  ques- 


40 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


tions  as  anthoritativoh^  as  possible,  a  study  of  second-growth  Hemlock 
was  made,  the  results  of  which  are  given  in  the  following  chapter. 

VOLUME  AND  YIELD,   SECOND-GROWTH  HEMLOCK. 

The  stud}'  of  second-growth  Hemlock  has  so  far  l^een  confined  to 
the  coast  region.  The  results  obtained  can  also  be  applied  with  fair 
accuracy  to  second  growth  upon  the  western  slope  of  the  Cascades, 
Avhere  the  rainfall  is  nearly  as  heav}'  as  it  is  near  the  Pacific.  The  most 
important  localities  selected  as  representative  of  coast  conditions  were 
near  South  Bend  and  Willapa,  in  Pacific  County,  Wash.     The  former 


20 


30 


90 


100 


110 


120 


)  60  60  70  i 

AGE -YEARS. 
Fig.  3.— Diagram  showing  growth  In  height  of  second-growth  Hemlock  and   Fir,  on    a  basis  of 
diameter  breasthigh. 

contains  a  large  tract  of  pure  Hemlock,  almost  uniformly  55  5^ears  old 
(PL  XI),  which  formed  the  basis  for  the  study  of  pure  stands.  Near 
Willapa  were  found,  in  addition  to  a  pure  stand  of  Hemlock,  a  typical 
mixture  of  Fir  and  Hemlock  about  75  years  old,  which  illustrated  the 
behavior  of  the  species  when  growing  in  mixture.  A  mixed  stand 
120  years  old  was  found  at  Stella,  Cowlitz  Count}^,  on  the  Columbia, 
and  studies  of  similar  stands  were  made  elsewhere  throughout  the 
State. 

Although  it  is  not  difficult  to  find  sufficient  stands  of  second  growth 
to  show  what  may  be  expected  upon  logged-off  lands,  there  is  no  log- 
ging in  these  stands.     In  order,  therefore,  to  compute  3'ield  tables,  it 


33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U.  S.  Dept.  of  Agriculture. 


Pure  Second-gruwth  Hlmldck,  b5  Ylars  Old.  bnuTH  Bend,  W/ 


VOLUME    AND    YIELD,    SECOND-GEOWTH    HEMLOCK. 


41 


was  necessary  to  create  an  arbitrary  standard  of  merchantable  size. 
It  was  assumed  that  in  fifty  years,  the  probable  shortest  time  in  which 
land  now  bare  can  be  log-ged  again  with  profit,  timber  will  have  gained 
in  value  sufliciently  to  warrant  the  cutting  of  any  tree  which  will  yield 
a  log  20  feet  long  and  12  inches  at  the  small  end.  A  few  of  the  trees 
13  inches  in  diameter  breasthigh  will  contain  such  a  log,  but  it  was 
thought  safer  to  take  14  inches  as  the  limit.  In  the  subsequent  dis- 
cussion of  second  growth,  therefore,  all  trees  14  inches  and  over  are 
considered  merchantable,  and  it  is  assiimed  that  all  timber  between  the 
stump  and  a  point  12  inches  in  diameter  inside  the  bark  will  be  utilized. 


60  70 

YEARS . 

Fig.  4.— Diagram  showing  growth  in  diameter  of  second-growth  Red  Fir  and  Hemlock  in  pure  stands 
and  of  Hemlock  in  mixture  with  Red  Fir. 

Such  material  as  piling  or  trap  poles  will  be  produced  in  less  than 
fifty  years,  but  earlier  than  this  the  trees  will  not  clear  themselves 
sufficiently  to  make  merchantable  sawlogs,  even  if  a  few  reach  the 
requisite  size. 

The  growth  of  pure  and  mixed  even-aged  forests  is  very  different. 
In  the  former.  Hemlock  grows  rapidlv,  with  a  normal  relation  between 
diameter  and  height  growth.  The  stand  is  exceedingl}'  dense  at 
first,  and  remains  so  longer  than  does  a  Red  Fir  forest  on  account 
of  the  greater  tolerance  of  the  Hemlock.  The  growth  in  height  and 
diameter  is  also  slower   than    that  of   Red  Fir.     Where,  however, 


42 


THE    WESTERN   HEMLOCK. 


Hemlock  comes  in  with  Fir  on  denuded  land,  it  i.s  after  the  first  few 
years  influenced  b}-  its  more  rapidly  growing  rival.  The  Fir  soon 
overtops  it  by  a  few  feet,  but  the  ability  of  Hemlock  to  live  under 
such  conditions  prevents  it  from  being  shaded  out.  The  result  is  that 
the  height  growth  of  Hemlock  in  mixture  with  Fir  is  as  rapid  as  that 
of  a  pure  stand,  and  that  the  suppression  is  shown  b}'  a  falling  ofl"  in 
its  diameter  growth.  Figs.  3  and  4  show  graphically  the  growth  of 
Hemlock  and  Fir  and  the  growth  of  the  same  species,  lioth  when  in 
mixture  and  when  in  pure  stands.  These  curves  represent  conditions 
near  the  coast,  and  are  somewhat  higher  than  would  be  an  average  for 
the  State. 

The  following  two  tables  give,  on  a  basis  of  diameter  breasthigh, 
the  total  height,  length  of  crown,  and  merchantable  length  of  second- 
growth  Hemlock  in  mixture  with  Fir  and  in  a  pure  stand: 

Table  13. — ^^xed  stands,  Hemlock  and  Red  Fir,  75  years  old,  Willajxr. 


Diameter 
ibreaathigh. 

Total 
height. 

Length  of 
crown. 

Merchant- 
able 
length. 

Inches. 

ne. 

Fed. 

Feet. 

1^ 

121 

53.0 

21 

15 

127 

57.0 

27 

16 

132 

60.0 

34 

17 

136 

62.0 

42 

18 

139 

63.0 

51 

19 

1-12 

64.0 

58 

20 

144 

65.0 

64 

21 

145 

65.5 

69 

22 

145 

66.0 

73 

23 

145 

66.0 

77 

24 

145 

66.0 

80 

25 

145 

66.0 

83 

Table  14. — Pwre  stand  of  Hemlock,  55  years  old,  South  Bend. 


Diameter 
breasthigh. 

Total 
height. 

Length  of 
crown. 

Merchant- 
able 
length. 

Indies. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

Feet. 

14 

107 

50 

24 

15 

109 

52 

29 

16 

HI 

53 

35 

17 

113 

54 

42 

18 

115 

55 

48 

19 

116 

56 

53 

20 

117 

56 

56 

21 

118 

57 

59 

22 

119 

57 

62 

23 

120 

58 

64 

24 

120 

58 

66 

25 

120 

58 

66 

VOLUME    AND    YIELD,    SECOND-GEOWTH    HEMLOCK. 


43 


The  character  of  three  typical  second-growth  stands  in  Washington  is 
shown  in  Table  15,  which  is  the  result  of  surveys  and  measurements  sim- 
ilar to  those  made  in  mature  timber  and  previously  described.  It  will  be 
noted  that  in  Willapa,  where  the  mixture  of  Hemlock  is  most  uniform, 
the  stand  is  unusually  heav}'  for  its  age.  This  is  in  part  due  to  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  and  a  very  heavy  annual  rainfall,  but  probabl}^  also 
to  the  composition  of  the  mixture,  for  a  tract  of  given  size  can  sup- 
port a  heavier  forest  of  mixed  Fir  and  Hemlock  than  of  either  species 
alone.  It  is  evident  that,  since  the  future  yield  of  a  second  crop  is 
influenced  b}^  the  mixture  of  species,  knowledge  of  the  rate  of  growth 


80,000 


70,000 


'50       60        70         60        30        lOO        110        120       /JO       140     150 
AGL— YEARS 

Fig.  5.— Dingram  showing  yield  per  acre  in  board  feet  on  a  basis  of  age  of  pure  even-aged  Hemloelc, 
with  and  without  deduction  for  cull. 

will  not  suflice  to  foretell  it  unless  the  composition  of  the  mixture  is 
known.  It  is  useless,  therefore,  to  make  hard  and  fast  tables  of  future 
yield  for  indiscriminate  application  to  the  varying  growths  which 
"may  occur  after  logging.  For  a  pure  stand  the  problem  is  umch 
simpler.  Fig.  5  represents  graphically  the  stand  which  may  be 
expected  from  pure  even-aged  Hemlock  near  the  coast  of  Washing- 
ton. It  includes  second  growth  only  and  not  those  trees  which  may 
escape  the  first  cutting.  The  upper  curve  shows  the  yield  without 
allowance  for  cull;  the  lower  curve,  the  yield  after  20  per  cent  for 
dead,  diseased,  scrubliy,  or  otherwise  unmerchantable  trees  has  been 
deducted. 


44 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


Table  15. — Stdud  and  yield  per  acre  in  fi/pical  localities. 

STELLA  (120-YEAR  OLD  STAND). 

[Average  of  155  acres.] 


Kumber  of  trees— 

Average  diameter  of 
trees- 

Yield  of  trees  14 

Species. 

6  inches 
and  over 
in  diame- 
ter breast- 
high. 

14  inches 
and  over 
in  diame- 
ter breast- 
high. 

14  inches 
and  over 
in  diame- 
ter breast- 
high. 

6  to  13 
inches  in 
diameter 

breast- 
high. 

in  diameter 
breasthigh. 

Lumber. 

Bark. 

Hemlock 

10.8 

47.1 

.7 

3.28 

44.36 

.28 

Indies.          Inches. 
20.9                  8.0 
28.6                10.9 
2L1                  9.0 

Board  feet. 

1,592 

57,312 

146 

Cords. 
0.29 

Red  Fir 

Cedar                                

Total 

58.6 

47.92 

28.3  '                8.9 

59,050 

.25 

WlLLAPA  (90-YEAR  OLD  .STAND). 
[Average  of  65  acres.] 


Hemlock. 
Red  Fir . . 
Spruce  . . . 
Cedar 


42.4 
54.6 
13.5 


13.9 
45.1 


7. 7  8, 146 
10. 6  39, 344 

8. 2  6, 430 

8. 8  140 


54, 060 


SOUTH  BEND  (55- YEAR  OLD  STAND). 
[Average  of  131  acres.] 


Hemlock 

Spruce  and  Cedar 

I              14. 2 

55.2 
7.2 

19.5 

21.7 

8.4 
8.8 

16, 190 
2,075 

4.2 


Total 

140.5 

62.4 

20.6 

8.6 

18,265 

3.6 

UTILIZATION  OF  SECOND-GROWTH  STANDS. 

Assuming-  that  in  the  future  there  will  be  a  considerable  area  of 
second-gTowth  Hemlock,  the  question  arises,  at  what  age  can  it  be 
most  prolitabW  logged  and  how  shall  the  forest  be  perpetuated?  This 
can  be  discussed  only  in  a  general  way,  for  it  depends  greatly  upon 
the  development  of  Hemlock  as  a  commercial  timber  and  upon  the  uses 
to  which  it  is  put.  The  tables  in  this  report  show  that  small  sticks, 
such  as  are  suitable  for  trap  poles,  may  be  cut  in  forty  years,  and  that 
in  fifty  years  logs  will  be  produced  which  would  be  considered  of  fair 
size  in  the  East  to-day.  In  this  time,  however,  according  to  tig.  5, 
there  will  be  only  a  little  over  2,000  feet  to  the  acre,  which  even,  allow- 
ing a  stumpage  of  $1  per  1,000  feet,  is  an  insignificant  amount.  Con- 
sidering it  as  a  lifty-year  investment,  there  will  have  been  a  mean 
annual  production  of  about  40  board  feet  an  acre.  At  the  end  of  sixty 
years  the  stand  will  be  22,000  feet,  or  a  mean  yield  of  366  feet.  The 
annual  increment  increases  to  471  feet  for  a  seventy-j^ear  period  and 
reaches  500  feet  at  eighty  years.     At  eighty-live  it  is  but  a  few  feet 


LTTILIZATION    OF    SECOND-GROWTH    STANDS.  45 

more,  and  from  then  on  it  decreases  steadily  in  rate  of  production.  It 
appears,  therefore,  that  the  greatest  production  of  wood  can  be  secured 
by  cutting  second-growth  Hemlock  when  it  is  about  80  years  old. 

However,  there  are  other  points  which  weigh  in  the  consideration 
of  the  cutting  age.  If  it  is  intended  to  keep  the  land  perpetually  in 
forest,  provision  must  be  made  for  a  third  crop,  and  it  will  not  do  to  cut 
at  a  time  when  natural  reproduction  is  doubtful.  Early  in  the  life  of 
an  average  second-growth  Hemlock  stand  there  are  many  small  trees 
which  graduall}'  become  shaded  out  and  killed  by  their  more  vigorous 
neighbors.  If  no  cutting  is  done  before  the  end  of  eighty  years,  most 
of  these  will  have  died  and  rotted,  and  if  everything  down  to  1-1  inches 
is  cut  there  will  be  few  trees  left  to  form  part  of  a  third  crop.  If  the 
cut  is  made  at  sixt^"  years,  there  will  be  a  good  nucleus  left  for  a  third 
crop,  but  the  cut  will  be  small  and  the  timber  inferior.  The  most 
profitable  plan  seems  to  be  to  wait  a  few  years  longer  and  to  trust  to 
natural  seeding  if  a  third  crop  is  desired.  At  first,  because  of  the 
dense  shade,  there  is  little  or  no  reproduction  beneath  second-growth 
Hemlock.  However,  after  about  sixty  years  or  more,  according  to 
the  density,  the  Hemlock  bears  seed  and  the  gradual  thinning  out  of 
the  stand  admits  sufficient  light  for  the  germination  and  growth  of 
seedlings.  If  the  forest  is  cut  when  80  j^ears  old,  many  of  the  seed- 
lings will  live,  and  with  those  which  spring  up  in  the  slashing  will 
form  sufficient  basis  for  another  stand.  There  will  also  be  man}^  fair- 
sized  trees  left  standing,  some  of  which,  at  least,  will  not  be  thrown  b}' 
wind.  So  far  as  can  be  judged  at  present,  the  cutting  age  or  rotation 
of  largest  yield  need  not  be  abandoned  in  order  to  insure  reproduction. 

The  rotation  of  greatest  financial  profit  still  remains  to  be  reckoned, 
for  this  is  not  necessaril}"  identical  with  that  of  the  greatest  wood  pro- 
duction. It  is  determined  by  the  period  at  which  the  value  of  the  crop 
represents  the  highest  interest  on  the  capital  invested.  Owing  to  the 
uncertainty  of  taxation  and  of  the  future  value  of  Hemlock  stumpage 
the  calculation  can  only  be  tentative. 

The  actual  sale  value  of  denuded  land  in  the  coast  counties  of  Wash- 
ington can  safely  be  placed  at  not  over  $1  an  acre,  or  |160  for  a  quar- 
ter section.  The  land  will  probably  be  assessed  at  about  $3  an  acre 
and  taxed  at  2  cents  on  the  dollar,  which  is  6  cents  an  acre,  or  $9.60 
for  the  quarter  section. 

Were  an  owner  to  sell  his  land  for  $160  as  soon  as  it  was  logged,  and 
deposit  the  money  in  a  savings  bank  at  3  per  cent  compound  interest, 
adding  annually  the  sum  which  he  would  pa}'  for  taxes  had  he  held 
the  land,  the  total  amount  to  his  credit  at  any  given  period  would 
represent  the  cost  of  holding  the  land  for  a  second  crop  during  the 
same  time.  The  calculation  of  this  amount  and  its  comparison  with 
the  value  of  the  land  and  crop  is  found  in  Table  16.     It  illustrates 


46 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


Strikingly  tlie  possible  loss  or  protit  in  holding  logged-off  land, 
assuming,  of  course,  that  the  premises  of  taxation  and  stumpage  are 
correct.  The  table  shows  that  70  years  is  the  most  profitable  age  at 
which  to  cut  if  stumpage  is  figured  at  either  75  cents  or  $1.  At  50 
cents  the  whole  transaction  is  a  losing  one.  and  the  longer  the  rotation 
the  ofreater  the  loss. 


Table  1H. — Fiintiwial  n 


i/t  of  cnttiug  one  quarter  seclio)i  of  Hemlock  after  60,  70,  (tnd  80 
years. 


Time 
between 
cuts,  or 
rotation, 

years. 

Value  of  land  and  crop  at 
end  of  rotation. 

Proceeds  of 

89.60  de- 
posited an- 
nually, at 
3  per  cent 
compound 
interest. 

Gain  by  holding 
land. 

Loss  by 
holding 

land, 
stumpage 

Stumpage. 

Stumpage. 

$1.00.     I     S0.75. 

$0.50. 

81.00. 

$0.75. 

60 
70 

80 

83,792         S2,884 
5, 440          4, 120 
6, 560           4, 960 

81,976 
2,800 
3,360 

82,451.40 
3,304.53 
4,681.80 

$1,340.60 
2,135.47 

1,878.20 

$432.60 
815.47 
278. 20 

8475.40 

504. 53 

1,321.80 

The  largest  profit  shown  above,  that  of  a  seventy -year  rotation  with 
a  selling  price  of  $1  stumpage,  represents  about  4. 5  per  cent  compound 
interest  upon  the  investment. 

It  should  be  clearly  understood  that  these  statements  of  profit  are 
purely  tentative,  based  upon  tax  rates  and  stumpage  values  which  can 
not  be  foretold  at  present.  They  are  believed  to  be  conservative. 
The  individual  can,  if  he  desires,  make  similar  calculations  upon  such 
premises  as  seem  in  his  judgment  more  probably  correct. 

From  the  foregoing  pages  it  may  be  seen  that  the  largest  sustained 
yield  is  secured  by  cutting  every  eighty  3^ears,  but  that  the  interest  on 
the  invested  capital  which  the  crop  represents  is  apparentl}'  highest  at 
the  end  of  sevent}^  years.  There  still  remains  to  be  reckoned  the 
bearing  of  age  on  the  quality  of  the  timber.  This  and  many  other 
questions  concerning  the  future  of  second  growth  depend  much  upon 
circumstances  impossible  to  foresee.  It  appears  now  that  it  will  be 
about  seventy-five  years  before  the  second  crop  can  be  logged  to  the 
best  advantage.  This  does  not  mean  that  a  considerable  amount  may 
not  be  cut  earlier.  And  even  if  a  long  rotation  is  decided  upon,  earlier 
thinning  would  be  beneficial  if  it  could  ])e  made  profitable.  The  dif- 
ficulty lies  in  cutting  small  quantities  and  in  disposing  of  small  mate- 
rial which,  at  present  at  least,  has  no  place  in  the  market  except 
possibly  as  trap  poles. 

HEMLOCK    LEFT   AFTER   LUMBERING. 

In  the  calculation  of  returns  from  second-growth  Hemlock  no 
account  has  been  taken  of  small  trees  left  standing  after  the  logging 
of  the  old  stand.  If  the  slashing  is  burned  these  will  be  destroyed; 
if  not,  there  w:?i  be  left  for  a  future  crop  a  number  which  depends 
upon  the  character  of  the  virgin  forest  and  upon   the  intensity  and 


UTILIZATION    OF    SECOND-GROWTH    STANDS. 


47 


destructivenesH  of  the  lumbering-.  This  number  varies  so  greatly  that 
it  is  futile  to  attempt  a  general  estimate  of  it.  It  may,  however 
readily  be  ascertained  on  the  ground,  and  the  forester,  by  finding  the 
rate  of  growth  of  the  trees  under  the  new  conditions,  can  predict 
either  how  long  it  will  be  before  a  given  amount  can  again  be  logged 
or  how  much  can  be  cut  after  a  given  time. 

Large  tracts  now  being  logged  near  Buckley,  Elma,  and  Hoquiam 
were  selected  as  examples.  It  was  assumed  that  all  trees  above  20 
inches  were  cut  for  logs  and  everything  between  16  and  20  inches  went 
into  skids.  The  number  of  trees  between  4  and  16  inches  which  would 
be  left  on  an  acre,  if  care  was  taken  to  destro}'-  as  few  as  possible,  was 
estimated,  and  these  were  allowed  a  conservative  diameter  growth  of 
an  inch  in  five  years  for  the  next  fift}'  years.  Their  contents  in  board 
measure  (cutting  to  14  inches)  at  the  end  of  twenty-five  and  fifty 
years  were  then  computed,  and  25  per  cent  was  deducted  for  trees 
which  might  die,  blow  down,  or  prove  worthless  for  lumber.  The 
results  are  here  shown: 


Table  17. —  Yield  per  acre  from  Hemlock  left  in  lumbering. 


Loijality. 

Number 
of  trees 
between 
4  and  16 
inches 
left  on 
acre. 

Yield  per  acre  at  the 
end  of- 

Twenty- 
flve  years. 

Fifty 
years. 

Buckley 

80 
52 
36 

Board  feet. 
3,285 
1,640 
1,745 

Board  Jeet. 
14,190 
8,320 

6,875 

Elma 

56 

2,223 

9,762 

Hoquiam  shows  less  than  the  normal  number  of  trees  for  that  part  of 
the  State,  because  of  an  insect  attack  several  years  ago,  which  destroyed 
many  young  trees.  The  figures  for  Buckley  are  included  to  produce 
a  fairer  average,  although,  us  a  matter  of  fact,  this  is  a  region  in  which 
Fir  reproduction  is  feasible,  and  the  burning  of  slashings  is  probably 
better  policy  than  the  protection  of  small  Hemlock. 

Since  a  few  seedlings  and  a  few  vigorous  trees  w^hich  were  less  than 
4  inches  in  diameter  at  the  time  of  logging  will  become  merchantable 
in  fifty  years,  the  yield  will  be  somewhat  more  than  the  9,762  feet 
indicated  above.  The  addition  on  this  account  wdll  probably  bring  the 
total  to  about  11,000  feet  an  acre,  or  1,760,000  to  the  quarter  section. 
At  $1  a  thousand  this  will  be  equivalent  to  a  simple  interest  of  8.9  per 
cent  on  an  investment  of  $1  an  acre  for  the  land  and  6  cents  an  acre 
annual  tax  for  fifty  years. 

The  above  calculations  indicate  a  larger  yield  after  fifty  years  than 
does  fig.  5  for  seedling  second  growth  alone.     Furthermore,  the  existence 


48  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

of  a  few  small  trees  does  not  preclude  the  development  of  a  seedling  stand 
also;  therefore,  the  true  second  crop  will  consist  of  both  and  be  greater 
than  either  alone.  It  will  not  be  equivalent  to  a  combination  of  both, 
for  the  ground  and  light  demanded  by  the  trees  which  are  left  standing 
will  be  denied  to  the  seedlings.  The  exact  manner  in  which  this  rivalry 
will  be  adjusted  depends  upon  the  number  of  trees  left  standing,  the 
condition  of  the  ground  for  germination  of  seeds,  and  numerous  other 
factors  which  require  a  study  of  each  case  before  even  an  approximate 
estimate  is  possible.  On  the  other  hand,  there  is  no  doulst  that  if  a 
fair  stand  of  Hendock  remains  on  cut-over  land  the  jdeld  given  by  fig.  5 
will  be  increased  by  from  8,000  to  12,000  feet  at  the  end  of  tift}^  years 
and  by  an  indefinite  amount  after  that  time.  This  is  assuming  a  nearly 
pure  Hemlock  reproduction.  No  attempt  will  be  made  to  discuss  Red 
Fir  seedling  growth  under  such  conditions,  for  it  is  not  apt  to  appear 
to  any  important  degree  unless  there  has  been  fire  enough  to  destroy  any 
small  Hemlock  which  survives  logging. 

If  it  is  desired  to  utilize  small  Hemlock  in  a  future  cutting,  care 
should  be  taken  not  to  injure  it  unnecessarily  during  logging.  Prom- 
ising trees  need  not  be  cut  for  skids  where  poor  ones  will  suffice,  and 
it  should  be  borne  in  mind  that  scars  caused  by  rigging,  especialh'  in 
setting  strap  leads,  are  almost  certain  to  ruin  young  trees.  Many  trees 
ordinarily  destroyed  might  be  preserved  at  no  additional  expense  by 
careful  swamping,  yarding,  and  falling. 

BABE. 

Although  thinner  than  that  of  the  Eastern  species,  the  bark  of  the 
Western  Hemlock  is  exceedingly  rich  in  tannic  acid.  This  has  long 
been  known  to  the  trade,  and  several  experiments  have  been  made  with 
a  view  to  the  establishment  of  extract  works  in  the  Northwest.  A 
plant  was  actually  started  near  South  Bend,  Wash.,  in  1893,  but,  owing 
to  insufficient  capital,  to  the  general  financial  depression  of  the  period, 
and,  it  is  said,  to  the  opposition  of  Eastern  bark  interests,  it  was  soon 
shut  down.  The  promoters  claim,  however,  to  have  demonstrated  the 
feasibility  of  a  similar  enterprise  under  more  favorable  conditions. 
In  Oregon,  where  Hemlock  is  logged  for  paper  pulp,  the  bark  is  util- 
ized by  local  tanneries  and  brings  from  $8  to  $1 2  a  cord.  The  claim 
is  made  that  it  produces  a  lighter  leather  than  Eastern  ])ark. 

So  little  use  is  made  of  the  bark  that  it  is  difficult,  in  comparing  it 
with  that  of  the  Eastern  Hemlock,  to  determine  to  what  degree  its 
thinness  is  compensated  for  by  its  superior  quality.  The  bark  of  the 
Eastern  tree  averages  about  10  per  cent  tannin.  The  few  available 
analyses  of  Washington  Hendock  bark  vary  with  locality  and  through 
absence  of  system  in  selecting  samples,  but  unite  in  allowing  a))out  16 
per  cent.     Samples  collected  in  Washington  by  the  Division  of  Forestry 


BARK. 


49 


were  .submitted  to  the  Division  of  Chemistry  of  the  Department  of 
Aj^riculture  and  the  following-  results  were  obtained: 

Table  18.— Analyses  of  bark  of  Western  Hemlock  from  Washington. 


Moisture 

Total  solids 

Soluble  solids 

Reds 

Nontannins 

Available  tannins 

Woody  fiber  by  difference 


No.  21272. 

Little 

Rock, 

Thurston 

County. 


Per  cent. 
9.87 
14.32 
13.78 
.54 
4.01 
9.77 
75.79 


No.  21273. 
Ashford, 
Pierce 
County. 

No.  21274. 

Enumclaw, 

King 

County. 

Per  cent. 

Per  cent. 

10.55 

10.01 

24.03 

22.16 

22.59 

20.  58 

1.44 

1.58 

6.59 

.5.72 

16.00 

14.86 

65.42 

67.83 

In  his  report  upon  these  analyses  Dr.  Wiley,  Chemist  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  Agriculture,  says: 

Nos.  21273  and  21274  are  especially  remarkable  on  account  of  being  so  rich  in 
tannin.     These  barks  are  all  of  superior  quality,  especially  the  two  just  mentioned. 

These  two  samples  probabl}^  represent  fairly  the  bark  of  the  west- 
ern slope  of  the  Cascades,  Enumclaw  being  about  1,000  feet  and  Ash- 
ford 2,000  feet  above  sea  level.  The  Little  Rock  sample  is  apparently 
inferior,  but  can  scarcely  be  regarded  as  representative,  since  it  was 
taken  from  a  fallen  tree  which  had  been  exposed  to  heavy  rains  for 
several  weeks.  It  is  not  improbable  that  a  fresh  sample  would  have 
compared  favorably  with  the  other  two  specimens. 

In  Hide  and  Leather,  of  June  24,  1893,  appear  the  results  of  tests 
made  b}^  H.  G.  Tabor,  manager  of  the  American  Extract  Works,  of 
Port  Allegheny,  Pa.,  which  are  as  follows: 

Table  19. — Comparative  analyses  of  Hemlock  hark  from  Washiugton,  Pennsylvania,  and 

Quebec. 


Washing- 
ton. 

Pennsyl- 
vania. 

Quebec. 

Per  cent. 
17.04 
6.40 
1.56 
75  00 

Per  cent. 

13.28 
7.52 
3.48 

75  72 

Per  cent. 

10.16 
4.56 
1.92 

83.36 

Reds                                                         

Wood  fibers 

Another  analysis  richer  in  tannin  than  either  of  the  preceding  was 
furnished  by  Professor  Fiebing,  of  Milwaukee,  to  persons  who  con- 
templated starting  an  extract  factory  near  the  coast  in  southwestern 
W^ashington.  He  found  the  percentage  of  tannin  in  the  two  samples 
sent  him  to  be  17.8  and  20.1,  respectively.  Allowing  2,240  pounds  to 
22020— No.  33—02 4 


50 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


the  cord,  and  assuming  an  average  percentage  of  10  for  Eastern  and  16 
for  Western  bark,  the  quantity  of  tannin  in  each  would  be  as  follows: 

Table  20. —  Yield  of  tannin  per  cord  of  Western  and  Eastern  hark. 

Pounds. 

Washington  bark 358.  4 

Eastern  bark 224. 0 

Difference 134.  4 


VOLUME    AND    YIELD. 

Although  the  cord  is  used  as  a  standard  of  measure  for  bark,  it  is 
usually  sold  b}'  weight,  in  order  to  avoid  variation  due  to  loose  piling. 
Throughout  the  East  2,240  pounds  are  usually  called  a  cord,  although 
in  some  places  2,000  pounds  are  accepted.  It  was  impossible  to  secure 
any^deld  tables  based  on  actual  practice  in  the  regions  covered  b}-  this 
report;  therefore  the  thickness  of  bark  at  various  heights  was  meas- 
ured on  all  trees  scaled,  and  the  amount  in  cubic  feet  produced  by  the 
average  tree  of  given  diameter,  and  also  by  the  acre,  was  computed. 
These  figures  were  then  converted  into  long  and  short  cords  on  a  basis 
of  66.6  cubic  feet  to  2,000  pounds  and  77  cubic  feet  to  2,240  pounds. 
This  was  done  separately  for  mature  and  second-growth  timber,  assum- 
ing that  in  the  latter  only  the  merchantable  log  length  would  be  peeled, 
and  that  in  the  former  all  bark  would  be  taken  from  the  stump  to  a 
point  where  the  tree  is  12  inches  in  diameter.  The  following  table 
gives,  on  a  basis  of  diameter  breasthigh,  the  volume  of  bark  and  the 
number  of  trees  required  to  make  a  cord  of  2,000  pounds  and  of  2,240 
pounds. 

Table  21. —  Volume  of  hark  per  tree  and  trees  per  cord. 


Diameter 
breast- 
high. 

Cord  of  2,000  pounds. 

Cord  of  2,240  pounds. 

Bark  per 
tree. 

Number  of 

trees  per 

cord. 

Bark  per 

tree. 

Number  of 

trees  per 

cord. 

Inches. 

Cords. 

Cords. 

13 

0.03 

38.5 

0.02 

45.4 

14 

.03 

33.3 

.03 

40.0 

15 

.04 

26.4 

.03 

31.2 

16 

.05 

21.8 

.04 

25.0 

17 

.06 

17.0 

.05 

20.0 

18 

.07 

14.1 

.06 

16.3 

19 

.09 

11.8 

.07 

13.5 

20 

.10 

9.8 

.09 

11.3 

21 

.12 

8.3 

.10 

9.7 

22 

.14 

7.1 

.12 

8.3 

23 

.16 

6.2 

.14 

7.2 

24 

.18 

5.5 

.16 

6.3 

25 

.21 

4.8 

.18 

5.6 

26 

.23 

4.3 

.20 

5.0 

27 

.26 

3.9 

.22 

4.5 

28 

.29 

3.5 

.25 

4.0 

29 

.32 

3.2 

.27 

3.C 

BARK. 


51 


Table  21. —  Volume  of  bark  per  tree  and  trees  per  cord — Continued. 


Diameter 
breast- 
high. 


Inches. 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 


Cord  of  2,000  pounds. 


Bark  per 
tree. 


.76 

.80 
.84 
.88 
.92 
.97 
1.01 
1.05 
1.10 


Number  of 
trees  per 


2.9 
2.7 
2.5 
2.3 
2.1 
2.0 
1.9 
1.7 
1.6 
1.6 
1.5 
1.4 
1.3 

1.2 
1.1 

1.0 
1.0 
1.0 
.9 


Cord  of  2,240  pounds 


Bark  per 


Cords. 
0.30 


3.3 
3.1 
2.8 
2.6 
2.4 
2.3 
2.1 
2.0 
1.9 
1.8 
1.7 
1.6 
1.5 
1.4 
1.4 
1.3 
1.3 
1.2 
1.1 


Where  bark  is  peeled  from  trees  cut  for  lumber  it  is  frequently 
the  custom  to  reckon  the  yield  by  the  amount  produced  to  the  thou- 
sand feet  of  logs,  board  measure.  In  the  East  half  a  cord  to  the 
thousand  is  considered  a  fair  average,  and  is  equivalent  to  about  112 
pounds  of  tannic  acid.  On  the  Pacific  coast  the  thinness  of  the  bark 
and  less  economical  logging  practices  unite  to  reduce  this  proportion, 
and  a  quarter  of  a  cord  to  the  thousand  is  all  that  can  be  relied  on,  but 
this  will  average  90  pounds  of  tannin.  The  yield  per  acre  is  necessa- 
rily exceedingly  variable.  For  example.  Table  11  represents  regions 
where  Hemlock  forms  a  given  per  cent  of  the  total  stand  of  mature 
timber.  Table  10  is  for  second  growth.  No  figures  were  obtained  for 
pure,  mature  Hemlock.  The  examples  given  compare  favorably  with 
the  yield  of  pure  Hemlock  land  in  the  East,  where  the  best  seldom 
exceeds  20  cords  an  acre  and  the  average  is  a))out  5.  Good  authorities 
place  the  average  crop  for  Pennsylvania  at  7j  cords,  for  New  York  4, 
and  for  Maine  only  3  cords  per  acre.  Taking  a  pure  55-year-old  stand 
at  South  Bend,  Wash.,  as  a  basis,  together  with  cruisings  and  meas- 
urements in  other  young  timber,  it  has  been  possible  to  figure  with 
approximate  accuracy  the  yield  which  may  be  expected  from  an  aver- 
age well-stocked  acre  of  pure  young  Hemlock  at  a  given  age.  The 
results  are  shown  in  Table  22.  Only  trees  14  inches  and  over  in 
diameter  breasthigh  have  been  considered,  and  these  peeled  to  a  point 
12  inches  in  diameter  in  the  tops. 


52  THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 

Table  22. — Yield  of  bark  per  acre  froai  pure  seamd-ijroivtJi  Hemlock. 


Age  of  stand. 

50 
years. 

60 
years. 

70 
years. 

80 
years. 

90 
years. 

100 
years. 

110 
years. 

120 
years. 

Allowing  2,000  pounds  to  1  cord: . . . 
Allowing  2,240  pounds  to  1  cord 

Cords. 
2.5 
.2 

Cards. 
6.8 
5.9 

Cords. 
9.2 
7.9 

Cords. 
10.1 
9.1 

Cords. 
11.5 
9.9 

Cords. 
12.1 
10.4 

Cords. 
12.3 
10.8 

Cords. 
12.9 
11.1 

Toward  the  upper  limit  of  the  Hemlock,  seldom  below  2,400  feet 
above  sea  level,  its  bark  often  strikingly  differs  from  that  of  the  tree 
at  lower  elevations.  It  is  exceedingly  thick,  often  2  inches,  and  is 
deeply  furrowed.  (See  PI.  XII.)  No  volume  or  yield  tables  were 
made  for  this  upland  form,  but  it  is  probable  that  trees  would  contain 
twice  as  much  bark  as  those  of  corresponding  size  at  lower  elevations. 

HARVESTING. 

In  the  East,  where  the  methods  of  harvesting  bark  have  developed 
into  an  established  process,  the  usual  peeling  season  extends  from  May 
to  August,  although  the  bark  peels  easiest  from  the  first  of  June  to 
the  middle  of  July.  Where  bark  alone  is  the  object,  a  peeling  crew 
consists  of  three  men — faller,  fitter,  and  spudder;  but  where  the  cut- 
ting is  primarily  for  lumber,  the  first  might  be  considered  one  of  the 
logging  crew.  The  fitter  trims  off  branches,  rings  the  bark  at  inter- 
vals of  tt  feet,  and  slits  each  section  lengthwise.  The  spudder  peels 
the  bark  with  a  flattened  bar  and  spreads  it  on  the  ground  with  the 
flesh,  or  inner  side,  up.  After  it  has  cured  in  the  sun  for  five  to  ten 
days  it  is  carefully  piled,  exterior  side  uppermost,  to  complete  the  sea- 
soning process,  which,  unless  the  season  is  wet  or  the  bark  is  piled  in 
a  shady  place,  requires  but  two  or  three  months.  It  is  highly  desirable 
to  remove  the  bark  from  the  woods  as  soon  as  it  is  seasoned,  for  if 
left  until  winter  it  becomes  covered  with  snow  and  ice,  loses  a  consid- 
erable part  of  its  tanning  property,  and  curls  badly;  but  in  regions 
where  roads  are  bad  in  summer  it  is  often  left  to  he  taken  out  on  sleds 
after  snowfall. 

It  is  evident  that  the  wet  climate  of  Oregon  and  Washington  will 
prove  somewhat  detrimental  to  the  economic  handling  of  ])ark. 
Unfortunately,  the  heaviest  rain  occurs  in  the  Hemlock  regions.  The 
thinness  of  the  bark,  the  greater  care  required  to  cure  properl}",  and 
the  higher  price  of  lal^or  will  tend  to  make  the  cost  of  production  per 
cord  greater  than  it  is  in  the  East.  On  the  other  hand,  Hemlock 
stumpage  is  low,  the  bark  is  richer,  and,  since  the  roads  are  best  in  the 
fall,  there  need  be  no  diflicultv  in  getting  it  out  when  it  is  in  the  best 
condition. 


ul.  33,  Bureau  of  Forestry,  U,  S.  Dept  of  Agricultun 


mmim. 


Fig.  1.— Western  Hemlock,  Cascade  Mountains,  Washington.    Alti- 
tude, 2,500  Feet,  showing  Thick,  Rough  Bark  of  Mountain  Form. 


Fig.  2.— Western  Hemlock,  Cascade   Mountains.  Washington.    Alti- 
tude, 3,000  Feet,  showing  Thick,  Rough  Bark  of  Mountain  Form. 


BARK.  53 

On  its  arrival  at  the  works  the  bark  usualh^  contains  from  8  to  12 
per  cent  of  water.  Fresh  bark  does  not  yield  the  acid  readil3\  Hence 
when  possible  it  is  stored  until  fully  cured,  usuall}^  between  one  and  two 
years.  It  is  highly  important  to  keep  it  well  protected  from  rain,  for 
it  leaches  easilj^  and  is  soon  ruined.  For  the  same  reason,  bai'k  from 
logs  which  have  been  towed  or  driven  is  of  little  value.  Salt  water 
ruins  it  entirely.  If  well  cared  for,  nearly  all  the  tannin  in  the  bark  is 
available.  A  cord  of  Eastern  bark  yields  from  400  to  430  pounds  of 
extract,  which  is  sufficient  to  tan  from  200  to  225  pounds  of  sole 
leather,  or  a  trifle  more  of  upper  leather. 

At  present  the  available  supplj^  of  hides  in  the  Pacific  Northwest  is 
insufficient  to  support  a  tanning  industry  of  any  great  proportions. 
It  is  probable  that  before  there  is  a  home  market  for  any  considerable 
quantity  of  bark  it  will  be  required  to  suppl}-  tanneries  in  the  East, 
where  complaint  is  alread}'  made  of  an  inadequate  suppl3\  If  this 
proves  true,  the  product  must  be  shipped  in  a  condensed  form  and 
considerable  capital  will  be  required  to  develop  the  industry. 


The  process  of  making  the  extract  is  as  follows:  The  bark  is  ground 
and  placed  in  wooden  vats,  where  it  is  steeped  until  the  acids  are 
removed.  The  resulting  liquor  is  then  evaporated  in  a  vacuum  at  a  tem- 
perature of  about  180°  F.  until  it  is  reduced  to  a  heavy,  dark  colored  fluid 
weighing  about  10  pounds  to  the  gallon  and  containing  nearly  all  the 
tanning  properties  of  the  bark.  Assuming  the  unsteeped  bark  to  have 
10  per  cent  of  tannic  acid,  100  pounds  of  it  would  produce  about  40 
gallons  of  20°  liquor,  which,  upon  anal3"sis,  would  show  about  2^.  per 
cent  of  tannin.  The  extract  is  usually  shipped  in  5<)0-pound  barrels 
and  brings  about  2i  cents  a  pound. 

While  the  production  of  ground  tan  bark  for  local  use  is  a  simple 
process,  the  successful  manufacture  of  extract  requires  even  more 
expensive  machinery  than  the  manufacture  of  lumber.  In  the  East, 
where  machinery  is  cheaper  than  on  the  Pacific  coast,  a  10-barrel 
plant  costs  from  $15,000  to  $20,000.  The  leach  house  is  much  like 
that  of  a  tannery,  but  an  evaporating  plant  is  also  required  in  which 
all  vats  and  pipes  must  be  copper  or  brass  lined,  and  this  part  of  the 
establishment  represents  a  large  proportion  of  the  entire  expense.  It 
is  also  customary'  to  conduct  a  barrel  factorj^  in  connection  with  the 
plant.  From  these  considerations,  it  is  apparent  that  extract  works 
will  be  built  only  where  there  is  certainty  of  a  sustained  bark  supply 
and  that,  owing  to  the  cost  of  transportation,  Hemlock  will  probably 
be  more  valuable  where  it  occurs  in  sufficient  quantity  to  support  a 
factory  than  in  regions  where  the  bark  must  l)e  sent  a  distance  to 
market. 


54 


THE    WESTERN    HEMLOCK. 


A  LIST  OF  THE  TBEES  OF  OREGON  AND  WASHINGTON,  WITH 
SOME  IMPORTANT  SHRUBS. 


Common  name. 


Scientific  name. 


Sugar  Pine 

Western  White  Pine 

W'hite-bark  Pine 

Bull  or  Yellow  Pine 

Jeffrey  Pine 

Scrub  Pine 

Lodgepole  Pine 

Knobcone  Pine 

Tamarack  or  Larch 

Sitka  or  Tideland  Spruce 

Engelmann  Spruce 

Brewer  Spruce 

Western  Hemlock 

Black  or  Alpine  Hemlock 

Red  or  Douglas  Fir 

White  or  Balsam  Fir 

White  Fir 

Shasta  Fir 

Alpine  Fir 

Amabilis  Firor,  erroneously,  "Larch' 
Noble  Fir  or,  erroneously,  "Larch,"  . 

Red  Cedar  or  Giant  Arborvitse 

Alaska  Cedar 

Port  Orford  Cedar 

Incense  Cedar ' 

Redwood 

Juniper 


Yew 

Willow 

Aspen  

Cottonwood 

Balm  of  Gilead . 
Paper  Birch  — 


Western  Birch 

Red  Alder 

Mountain  Alder 

White  Alder 

Western  W'hite  or  Prairie  Oak. 

Canyon  Live  Oak 

California  Black  Oak 

Tanbark  Oak 

Wild  Crabapple 

Black  Haw 

Wild  Cherry 

Wild  Plum 

Bigleaved  Maple 

Vine  Maple 

Dwarf  or  Mountain  Maple 

Dogwood 

Madrone 

Oregon  Ash , 

California  Laurel 


Pinus  lavibertiana  Dougl 

Pinus  monticola  Dougl 

Pinm  aVbicaulis  Engelm , 

Pinus  ponderosa  Laws 

Pinus  jeffreyi  ' '  Oreg.  Com. ' ' . , 

Pinus  contorta  Loud , 

Pinus murrayana  "Oreg.  Com." 

Pinus  attenuata  Lemmon 

Larix  occidentalis  Nutt 

Picea  sitchensis  (Bong.)  Trautv.  <fe  Mayer 

Picea  engelmanni  Engelm 

Picea  breu'criana  Wats 

Tsuga  heterophylla  ( Raf . )  Sargent  

Tsiiga  nil  rti  iisidiKi  (Bong.)  Carr 

Pseudot^'iiii'i  tii.ri/iilia  (Lam.)  Britton 

Abies  grundia  Liiidl 

Abies  concolor  (Gord. )  Parry 

Abies  shastensis  Lemmon 

Abies  lasiocarpa  ( Hook. )  Nutt 

Abies  amabilis  (Loud.)  Forb 

Abies  nobilis  Lindl 

Thuja  plicata  Don 

Chamxcyparis  nootkatensis  ( Lamb. )  Spach . 
Chamxcyparis  lawsoniana  (Murr.)  Pari... 

Libocedrus  decurrens  Torr. 

Sequoia  sempervirens  (Lamb.)  Endl 

Juniperus  scopulorum  Sargent  and  J.  occi- 
dentalis  Hook. 

Taxtis  brevifolia  Nutt 

Salix  (several  species) 

Populus  tremuloides  Michx 

Popidus  trichocarpa  Torr.  &  Gr 

Populus  balsamijera  Linn 

Betula  papyri/era  Marsh 


Elderberry 


Betula  occidentalis  Hook 

Alnus  oregona  Nutt 

Alnus  viridis  De  C 

A171US  rhombifoUa  Nutt 

Qtiercus  garryana  Dougl 

Quercus  chrysolepis  Liebm 

Quercus  calif  arnica  (Torr. )  Coop 

Quercus  densiflora  Hook.  &  Arn 

Pyrus  rivularis  Dougl 

Cratsegus  douglassii  Lindl 

Primus  emarginata  (Dougl. )  Walp 

Prunus  subcordata  Benth 

Acer  macrophyllum  Pursh 

Acer  circinatum  Pursh 

Acer  glabrum  Torr 

Cornus  nuttallii  And 

Arbtdus  menziesii  Pnrsh 

Praxinus  oregona  Nutt 

Umbelhdaria  calijornica  (Hook.  &  Arn.) 

Nutt. 
Sambucus  glauca  Nutt 


Oregon  only. 
Semi-Alpine. 
Alpine. 

Oregon  only. 


Do. 
Do. 


Alpine. 


Oregon  only. 

Do. 
Alpine. 
Semi-Alpine. 

Do. 

Do. 
Oregon  only. 
Do. 
Do. 


Do. 
Washington    only; 

very  rare. 
Rare. 


Oregon  only. 
Do. 
Do. 


Do. 

Chiefly  in  burns. 


LIST    OF    TREES    OF    OREGON    AND    WASHINGTON. 


55 


A  list  oftlte  trees  of  Oregon  and  Washington,  villi  some  important  s/int6s— Continued. 
SHRUBS. 


Common  name. 

Scientific  name. 

Where  found. 

Salal 

Gaiiliheria  sliallou  Pursch 

Oregon  Grape 

Berbtris nervosa an^B.aquiJohum  Pursch. 

Devil  (;iub 

Fatsia  hornda  Benth  &  Hook 

Red  Huckleberry 

Wild  Spirsea  or  Arrow-wood 

Spirxa  discolor  Puisch 

Goat  Brush,  Buck  Brush, or  Wild  Box. 

Pachi/stima  myrsinites  Raf 

Semi-Alpine. 

Ser  viceberrv 

Amelanchier  alnifolia  Nutt 

,  In  bill  DS  and  open  ground  the  plants  of  most  importance  are  the  com- 
mon Fern  or  Brake  {Pteris  aqidUna  Linn),  Blackberry  {Rubmnrainm 
Cham.  &  Schlecht),  Thimbleberiy  [Ruhus  7iutkanus  Mocino),  and  Fire- 
weed  {Ej)ilohium  spicatmii  Lam.). 


HECKMAN 

BINDERY  INC. 

,,g^      JUNE  87 


N.  MANCHESTER, 
iNiniANA  46962 


